Machine learning reveals the control mechanics of an insect wing hinge

Insects constitute the most species-rich radiation of metazoa, a success due to the evolution of active flight. Unlike pterosaurs, birds, and bats, the wings of insects did not evolve from legs ¹ , but are novel structures attached to the body via a biomechanically complex hinge that transforms tiny, high-frequency oscillations of specialized power muscles into the sweeping back-and-forth motion of the wings ² . The hinge consists of a system of tiny, hardened structures called sclerites that are interconnected to one another via flexible joints and regulated by the activity of specialized control muscles. Here, we imaged the activity of these muscles in a fly using a genetically encoded calcium indicator, while simultaneously tracking the 3D motion of the wings with high-speed cameras. Using machine learning approaches, we created a convolutional neural network ³ that accurately predicts wing motion from the activity of the steering muscles, and an encoder-decoder ⁴ that predicts the role of the individual sclerites on wing motion. By replaying patterns of wing motion on a dynamically scaled robotic fly, we quantified the effects of steering muscle activity on aerodynamic forces. A physics-based simulation that incorporates our model of the hinge generates flight maneuvers that are remarkably similar to those of free flying flies. This integrative, multi-disciplinary approach reveals the mechanical control logic of the insect wing hinge, arguably among the most sophisticated and evolutionarily important skeletal structures in the natural world.