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Glucose Homeostasis: Regulation of Blood Glucose01:02

Glucose Homeostasis: Regulation of Blood Glucose

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Carbohydrates consumed through foods are converted into glucose, a crucial energy source for the body. In the prandial state, high blood glucose levels stimulate the secretion of insulin from the pancreas. Insulin inhibits hepatic glucose production and stimulates glucose uptake and metabolism by muscle and adipose tissue. The excess glucose is converted into glycogen and stored in the liver and muscles.
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Glucose Transporters01:27

Glucose Transporters

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Glucose transporters facilitate the transport of glucose across the cell membrane. In addition to glucose, some glucose transporters can also aid the movement of other hexoses such as fructose, mannose, and galactose.
Facilitated diffusion-glucose transporters (GLUTs) are encoded by the solute-linked carrier (SLC) family 2, subfamily A gene family, or SLC2A. The 14 GLUT protein members are distributed into three classes:
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Overview of Carbohydrate Metabolism01:19

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Carbohydrate metabolism is a fundamental biochemical process that ensures a constant supply of energy to living cells. The most important carbohydrate is glucose, which can be broken down via glycolysis to enter into the Krebs cycle and eventually lead to the production of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
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Hormones Regulating Blood Glucose01:16

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Insulin is released by beta cells of the pancreas when blood glucose levels are high. It facilitates glucose absorption and utilization in insulin-dependent cells with insulin receptors on their plasma membranes. Insulin promotes glucose uptake by increasing the number of glucose transport proteins in the cell membrane, allowing glucose to enter the cell. As a result, glucose utilization and ATP production are enhanced.
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Glucose Homeostasis: Pancreatic Islets and Insulin Secretion01:27

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The pancreatic islets comprising only 1%-2% of the volume are highly vascularized and innervated mini-organs. They contain five endocrine cell types, including β cells that secrete insulin, which is synthesized as a single polypeptide chain, preproinsulin, processed to proinsulin, and finally to insulin and C-peptide. This process is complex and regulated, involving the Golgi complex, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the secretory granules of the β cell.
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Glucose Absorption Into the Small Intestine01:26

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Complex carbohydrates consumed cannot be absorbed into the small intestine in their original form. First, they must be hydrolyzed to a monosaccharide form such as glucose or galactose. These monosaccharides are then transported across the intestinal membrane and into the blood via transcellular transport. The intestinal epithelial cells allow the movement of these monosaccharides with a defined 'entry' through membrane transporter proteins present on their apical membrane and...
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Study of In Vivo Glucose Metabolism in High-fat Diet-fed Mice Using Oral Glucose Tolerance Test OGTT and Insulin Tolerance Test ITT
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Sex Differences in Glucose Homeostasis.

Ebru Arioglu-Inan1, Gizem Kayki-Mutlu2

  • 1Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey. arioglu@ankara.edu.tr.

Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology
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Summary

Sexual dimorphism impacts glucose homeostasis and diabetes risk. Understanding sex differences in type 1 diabetes and antidiabetic drug efficacy is crucial for personalized medicine.

Keywords:
Blood glucoseDiabetesInsulinInsulin resistanceSex difference

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Area of Science:

  • Endocrinology
  • Metabolic Diseases
  • Human Physiology

Background:

  • Sexual dimorphism influences physiological functions, including glucose homeostasis.
  • Sex differences in glucose metabolism are attributed to hormones, body composition, and chromosomes.
  • Diabetes mellitus, particularly type 1 diabetes (T1D), exhibits sex-specific prevalence and manifestations.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the impact of sex on glucose homeostasis in healthy individuals.
  • To examine sex differences in the context of type 1 and type 2 diabetes.
  • To discuss how sexual dimorphism affects antidiabetic medication efficacy and safety.

Main Methods:

  • Review of preclinical and clinical studies on sexual dimorphism and glucose metabolism.
  • Analysis of epidemiological data on sex differences in diabetes prevalence and subtypes.
  • Examination of literature on sex-specific responses to glucose-lowering therapies.

Main Results:

  • Men and women exhibit distinct patterns of glucose regulation, with men more prone to impaired fasting glucose and women to impaired glucose tolerance.
  • Type 1 diabetes shows a male predominance, unlike type 2 diabetes.
  • Sexual dimorphism influences the effectiveness and side effect profiles of antidiabetic drugs.

Conclusions:

  • Sex is a significant factor in glucose homeostasis and diabetes.
  • Recognizing sexual dimorphism is essential for developing targeted diabetes prevention and treatment strategies.
  • Further research into sex-specific mechanisms is needed to optimize diabetes care.