Search research articles

ABOUT JoVE

Overview Leadership Blog JoVE Help Center

AUTHORS

Publishing Process Editorial Board Scope & Policies Peer Review FAQ Submit

LIBRARIANS

Testimonials Subscriptions Access Resources Library Advisory Board FAQ

RESEARCH

JoVE Journal Methods Collections JoVE Encyclopedia of Experiments Archive

EDUCATION

JoVE Core JoVE Business JoVE Science Education JoVE Lab Manual Faculty Resource Center Faculty Site

Terms & Conditions of Use

Related Concept Videos

Timing and Consequences on Behavior

Timing and Consequences on Behavior

In operant conditioning, the timing of reinforcement is crucial. For animals like rats and cats, immediate reinforcement (within a few seconds) is much more effective than delayed reinforcement. For example, a food reward for a rat needs to follow within 30 seconds of pressing a bar to be effective.
Humans, however, can respond to delayed reinforcers. We often make decisions between immediate small rewards and delayed larger rewards. This ability to delay gratification is a significant...

Framing Effects

Framing Effects

Information is everywhere and its presentation—such as how and when items are presented—can impact our perceptions and decisions surrounding the info. This broad concept umbrellas framing effects—influences that occur due to the way information is framed in its appearance, whether it’s purely the order or the specific wording of a message. Let’s take a look at numerous ways in which two versions of something can objectively say the same thing, yet we respond in...

The Availability Heuristic

The Availability Heuristic

A heuristic is a general problem-solving framework (Tversky & Kahneman, 1974). You can think of these as mental shortcuts that are used to solve problems. Different types of heuristics are used in different types of situations, and the impulse to use a heuristic occurs when one of five conditions is met (Pratkanis, 1989):

Social Proof

Social proof is a form of persuasion based on comparison and conformity. People compare their behavior and actions to what others are doing and will change to conform to do what their peers do.

Avoidance Learning and Learned Helplessness

Avoidance Learning and Learned Helplessness

Avoidance learning and learned helplessness are critical concepts in understanding behavioral responses to negative stimuli.
Avoidance learning occurs when an organism learns that a specific behavior can prevent an unpleasant outcome. For example, a student who receives a bad grade may start studying harder to avoid future poor grades. This behavior persists even when the negative outcome is no longer present. Avoidance learning is powerful because it maintains behavior in the absence of the...

Confirmation Biases

Confirmation Biases

The confirmation bias is the tendency to focus on information that confirms our existing beliefs and ignore information that is inconsistent with our expectations. For example, if you think that your professor is not very nice, you notice all of the instances of rude behavior exhibited by the professor while ignoring the countless pleasant interactions he is involved in on a daily basis. Have you ever fallen prey to the confirmation bias, either as the source or target of such bias?

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by

Same author

Mitigating Selective Exposure to Information via Accuracy and Defense Focused Messages.

Psychological reports·2026

Same author

Mindfulness and Implementation Planning: Promoting Self-Reported and Behavioral Forgiveness.

Psychological reports·2022

Same author

Specialty coffee consumption intervention illustrates the utility of behavior feedback messages.

Eating behaviors·2022

Same author

Educating outdoor workers using tailored and financial messages to encourage safe-sun behaviors.

Health education research·2021

Same author

Reducing Loneliness: The Impact of Mindfulness, Social Cognitions, and Coping.

Psychological reports·2021

Same author

Loneliness Among College Students: The Influence of Targeted Messages on Befriending.

Psychological reports·2021

Search research articles

Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 23, 2025

Continuous Theta Burst Stimulation of the Posterior Medial Frontal Cortex to Experimentally Reduce Ideological Threat Responses

Continuous Theta Burst Stimulation of the Posterior Medial Frontal Cortex to Experimentally Reduce Ideological Threat Responses

Published on: September 28, 2018

Does Considering the Consequences of Selective Exposure Help Reduce Selective Exposure Behaviors?

Lane M Banks¹, Laura A Brannon¹

¹Department of Psychological Sciences, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA.

Psychological Reports

|July 14, 2023

Summary

Recalling personal vulnerabilities or idea dismissals increased engagement with opposing views. This research explores how framing affects engagement with counterattitudinal messages, suggesting potential for improved dialogue.

Keywords:

Selective exposure counterattitudinal message personal relevance

More Related Videos

A Prediction Error-driven Retrieval Procedure for Destabilizing and Rewriting Maladaptive Reward Memories in Hazardous Drinkers

A Prediction Error-driven Retrieval Procedure for Destabilizing and Rewriting Maladaptive Reward Memories in Hazardous Drinkers

Published on: January 5, 2018

Errors as a Means of Reducing Impulsive Food Choice

Errors as a Means of Reducing Impulsive Food Choice

Published on: June 5, 2016

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jul 23, 2025

Continuous Theta Burst Stimulation of the Posterior Medial Frontal Cortex to Experimentally Reduce Ideological Threat Responses

Continuous Theta Burst Stimulation of the Posterior Medial Frontal Cortex to Experimentally Reduce Ideological Threat Responses

Published on: September 28, 2018

A Prediction Error-driven Retrieval Procedure for Destabilizing and Rewriting Maladaptive Reward Memories in Hazardous Drinkers

A Prediction Error-driven Retrieval Procedure for Destabilizing and Rewriting Maladaptive Reward Memories in Hazardous Drinkers

Published on: January 5, 2018

Errors as a Means of Reducing Impulsive Food Choice

Errors as a Means of Reducing Impulsive Food Choice

Published on: June 5, 2016

Area of Science:

Social Psychology
Communication Studies
Information Science

Background:

Selective exposure, the tendency to avoid disagreeable information, is prevalent and has negative societal consequences.
Understanding how to increase engagement with counterattitudinal messages is crucial for fostering open dialogue and informed decision-making.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate whether personally relevant message frames enhance participant engagement and agreement with counterattitudinal information.
To explore the effectiveness of 'idea attack' and 'unable to defend position' frames compared to a control frame.

Main Methods:

180 participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions: 'idea attack' frame, 'unable to defend position' frame, or an irrelevant control frame.
Participants read a counterattitudinal message regarding internet service taxes.
Post-message, participants reported their agreement and self-perceived engagement levels.

Main Results:

Neither message frame significantly increased agreement with the counterattitudinal message.
Both the 'unable to defend position' and 'idea attack' frames significantly increased participants' self-perceived engagement with the message.
Participants were more engaged when reminded of past vulnerabilities or dismissals of their ideas.

Conclusions:

Personal relevance, particularly through frames highlighting vulnerability or social dismissal, can enhance engagement with challenging information.
These findings suggest that framing strategies can motivate individuals to interact more deeply with messages that challenge their existing beliefs.
Further research into these frames is warranted to explore their potential for improving intergroup communication and understanding.