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Related Concept Videos

Development of Immunocompetence01:22

Development of Immunocompetence

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The initiation of cell-mediated immunity can be observed as early as the third month of fetal growth, with active antibody-mediated immunity following approximately one month later.
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Transcytosis is the process in which molecules are internalized by endocytosis, transported across the cell, and released through exocytosis from the opposite end of the cell. Molecules such as insulin, immunoglobulins, and certain nutrients are transferred through the recycling endosomes by recycling and transcytosis.
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Active versus Passive Immunity01:31

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Immunity, along with the ability to limit pathogen growth to prevent significant body tissue damage, can be gained either by (1) actively developing an immune response within the individual after exposure to a pathogen or after getting vaccinated or (2) passively transferring immune components from an immune individual to one who is nonimmune. Both these forms of immunity can be found naturally and in medical practices.
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Infection01:20

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When a pathogen enters the body and reproduces, it can cause an infection, damage body cells, and cause illness symptoms that eventually lead to disease. Therefore, its prevention requires breaking the chain of infection.
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Natural flora, body system defenses, and inflammation are natural barriers of the body against infectious agents regardless of previous exposure. Normal floras of the human body refer to the microbial population that colonizes the skin and mucous membranes.
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Transmission-based precautions are for patients known to be infected or suspected to be infected or colonized with organisms that pose a significant risk to others. Some transmission-based precautions include contact, enteric, and droplet.
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Updated: Jul 18, 2025

Isolation of Leukocytes from Human Breast Milk for Use in an Antibody-dependent Cellular Phagocytosis Assay of HIV Targets
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Viruses and Human Milk: Transmission or Protection?

Rachele Francese1, Chiara Peila2, Manuela Donalisio1

  • 1Department of Clinical and Biological Sciences, Laboratory of Molecular Virology and Antiviral Research, University of Turin, Orbassano (TO), Italy.

Advances in Nutrition (Bethesda, Md.)
|August 21, 2023
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Human milk (HM) offers crucial infant nutrition and possesses intrinsic antiviral properties. Despite potential viral transmission risks, breastfeeding is generally safe and beneficial for infant health.

Keywords:
antiviral activityhuman milkmother-to-child transmissionpasteurizationvirus detection

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Area of Science:

  • Immunology
  • Virology
  • Pediatrics
  • Human Milk Research

Background:

  • Human milk (HM) is vital for infant nutrition, adapting to infant needs.
  • HM can transmit viral pathogens, but infant disease is rare.
  • Intrinsic antiviral properties of HM explain this paradox.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review viruses detected in HM and their transmission risks.
  • To describe HM antiviral compounds and their mechanisms.
  • To analyze the impact of HM processing on viruses and antiviral factors.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of studies on viruses in HM.
  • Analysis of antiviral compounds in HM and their functions.
  • Evaluation of pasteurization and storage effects on HM.

Main Results:

  • Identified viruses in HM and assessed breastfeeding transmission risks.
  • Detailed HM's antiviral compounds and their action mechanisms.
  • Assessed HM processing impacts on viral detection and antiviral properties.

Conclusions:

  • Extensive knowledge exists on viral transmission via HM and its antiviral defenses.
  • Breastfeeding is generally recommended, prioritizing infant and maternal well-being.
  • Depriving infants of HM is often unnecessary, supporting continued breastfeeding.