Hysteresis response of groundwater depth on the influencing factors using an explainable learning model framework...

Machine learning has been widely used for groundwater prediction. However, the hysteresis response of groundwater depth (GD) to input features has not been fully investigated. This study uses an interpretation method to reveal the interplay between climate, human activity, and GD while considering the response of groundwater to multiple factors. Six factors [precipitation (P), wind speed (WS), temperature (T), population (POP), gross domestic product (GDP), and effective irrigated area (EIA)] were selected to analyze the hysteresis response of GD in terms of the lag correlation coefficient and lag time. The correlation between climatic variables and GD was weaker than that of anthropogenic variables. The lag time between variables and different types of GD was less than four months at most sites, except for EIA and WS in deep groundwater. The SVM model achieved satisfactory performance in 89 % of the sites. If there were sharp changes in GD during the testing period or significant variations in its seasonal patterns at different times, the SVM model performed poorly. The model was interpreted using the Shapley additive explanation method. The impact of POP and GDP on deep groundwater in irrigated areas was higher than that of shallow groundwater. In urban areas with intensive human activities, anthropogenic variables were the main factors affecting shallow groundwater while the impact of climate was gradually increasing in the suburbs. The influence of precipitation on shallow groundwater was decreased after water transfer from the South-to-North Water Diversion project. Furthermore, this study proposed a multifactor-driven conceptual model that can provide recommendations for analyzing groundwater dynamics in similar areas.