Visualizing interfacial collective reaction behaviour of Li-S batteries

Benefiting from high energy density (2,600 Wh kg^-1) and low cost, lithium-sulfur (Li-S) batteries are considered promising candidates for advanced energy-storage systems^1-4. Despite tremendous efforts in suppressing the long-standing shuttle effect of lithium polysulfides^5-7, understanding of the interfacial reactions of lithium polysulfides at the nanoscale remains elusive. This is mainly because of the limitations of in situ characterization tools in tracing the liquid-solid conversion of unstable lithium polysulfides at high temporal-spatial resolution^8-10. There is an urgent need to understand the coupled phenomena inside Li-S batteries, specifically, the dynamic distribution, aggregation, deposition and dissolution of lithium polysulfides. Here, by using in situ liquid-cell electrochemical transmission electron microscopy, we directly visualized the transformation of lithium polysulfides over electrode surfaces at the atomic scale. Notably, an unexpected gathering-induced collective charge transfer of lithium polysulfides was captured on the nanocluster active-centre-immobilized surface. It further induced an instantaneous deposition of nonequilibrium Li₂S nanocrystals from the dense liquid phase of lithium polysulfides. Without mediation of active centres, the reactions followed a classical single-molecule pathway, lithium polysulfides transforming into Li₂S₂ and Li₂S step by step. Molecular dynamics simulations indicated that the long-range electrostatic interaction between active centres and lithium polysulfides promoted the formation of a dense phase consisting of Li⁺ and S_n^2- (2 < n ≤ 6), and the collective charge transfer in the dense phase was further verified by ab initio molecular dynamics simulations. The collective interfacial reaction pathway unveils a new transformation mechanism and deepens the fundamental understanding of Li-S batteries.