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Related Concept Videos

Urea Cycle01:23

Urea Cycle

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The urea cycle describes how liver cells convert ammonia to urea. Ammonia is a toxic waste product of protein catabolism. Land animals must convert ammonia into the less toxic urea which can be safely eliminated by the kidneys through urine. Marine animals excrete ammonia directly, and the surrounding water dilutes the ammonia to safe levels.
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Comparative Excretory Systems02:24

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Animals have evolved different strategies for excretion, the removal of waste from the body. Most waste must be dissolved in water to be excreted, so an animal’s excretory strategy directly affects its water balance.
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Inorganic Nitrogen Assimilation01:22

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Nitrogen is an essential element in biological systems, forming a crucial component of proteins, nucleic acids, and other cellular constituents. Many bacteria and archaea acquire nitrogen in the form of nitrate (NO₃⁻) or ammonia (NH₃), which are then assimilated into biomolecules through specific enzymatic pathways.Assimilatory Nitrate ReductionWhen nitrate enters the cell, it undergoes a two-step reduction process known as assimilatory nitrate reduction. Initially, the enzyme...
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Overview of Nitrogen Metabolism01:20

Overview of Nitrogen Metabolism

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Nitrogen is a very important element for life because it is a major constituent of proteins and nucleic acids. It is a macronutrient, and in nature, it is recycled from organic compounds and stored in the form of  ammonia, ammonium ions, nitrate, nitrite, or  nitrogen gas by many metabolic processes. Many of these metabolic processes are carried out only by prokaryotes.
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Preparation of Amines: Alkylation of Ammonia and Amines01:30

Preparation of Amines: Alkylation of Ammonia and Amines

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Alkylation is one of the methods used to prepare amines. Direct alkylation of ammonia or a primary amine with an alkyl halide gives polyalkylated amines along with a quaternary ammonium salt through successive SN2 reactions. This process of making the quaternary salt through the direct alkylation method is called exhaustive alkylation.
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There is a gradient of solutes in the interstitial fluid from the renal cortex through the medulla, known as the medullary osmotic gradient. The juxtamedullary nephrons establish and maintain this gradient using countercurrent mechanisms with loops extending deep into the medulla. These nephrons also use countercurrent mechanisms to regulate urine volume and concentration. The interaction between the descending and ascending limbs of the nephron loop creates an osmotic gradient through...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 16, 2025

An In Vitro Bladder Model of Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection
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An In Vitro Bladder Model of Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infection

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An Improved Model for Biogenic Ammonium Urate.

Alyssa M Thornton1, Timothy G Fawcett2, James A Kaduk3,4

  • 1Department of Chemistry, Georgetown University, Washington, District of Columbia 20057, United States.

Crystal Growth & Design
|September 11, 2023
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Ammonium urate hydrate (AUH) is identified in urinary stones. Biogenic ammonium urate likely exists as a mixture of AUH and anhydrous forms, explaining variability in natural samples.

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Area of Science:

  • Crystallography
  • Mineralogy
  • Urology

Background:

  • Pathological crystallization of ammonium urate causes urinary tract conditions.
  • Structural studies are challenging due to powder precipitation and variable diffraction patterns.

Purpose of the Study:

  • Identify components in natural uroliths.
  • Characterize ammonium urate hydrate (AUH) structure and stability.
  • Explain variability in biogenic ammonium urate.

Main Methods:

  • Block Rietveld refinement of powder diffraction data.
  • Thermogravimetric and spectroscopic analysis.
  • Combustion analysis and synchrotron X-ray diffraction.

Main Results:

  • Ammonium urate hydrate (AUH) identified as a component in natural uroliths.
  • AUH exhibits a planar 2-D hydrogen-bonded framework.
  • AUH is stable up to 150 °C but decomposes with prolonged heating.
  • Biogenic ammonium urate is modeled as a mixture of AUH and anhydrous forms.

Conclusions:

  • AUH is a key component in ammonium urate uroliths.
  • The ratio of AUH to anhydrous ammonium urate varies with growth environment.
  • Structural variability in natural samples is explained by mixtures of these forms.