Related Experiment Video
Updated: Jul 16, 2025

Insect-machine Hybrid System: Remote Radio Control of a Freely Flying Beetle Mercynorrhina torquata
Published on: September 2, 2016
A hierarchical model for external electrical control of an insect, accounting for inter-individual variation of
Dai Owaki1, Volker Dürr2,3, Josef Schmitz2,3
1Department of Robotics, Graduate School of Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan.
Abstract:
Cyborg control of insect movement is promising for developing miniature, high-mobility, and efficient biohybrid robots. However, considering the inter-individual variation of the insect neuromuscular apparatus and its neural control is challenging. We propose a hierarchical model including inter-individual variation of muscle properties of three leg muscles involved in propulsion (retractor coxae), joint stiffness (pro- and retractor coxae), and stance-swing transition (protractor coxae and levator trochanteris) in the stick insect Carausius morosus. To estimate mechanical effects induced by external muscle stimulation, the model is based on the systematic evaluation of joint torques as functions of electrical stimulation parameters. A nearly linear relationship between the stimulus burst duration and generated torque was observed. This stimulus-torque characteristic holds for burst durations of up to 500ms, corresponding to the stance and swing phase durations of medium to fast walking stick insects. Hierarchical Bayesian modeling revealed that linearity of the stimulus-torque characteristic was invariant, with individually varying slopes. Individual prediction of joint torques provides significant benefits for precise cyborg control.
Related Concept Videos
Hierarchy of Motor Control
Motor Unit Stimulation
The latent period of contraction marks the onset of excitation-contraction coupling, when the action potential propagates across the sarcolemma, preparing the muscle fibers for contraction. As the fibers enter the contraction phase, the...
Design Example: Frog Muscle Response
When the switch connecting the RL circuit is closed, a brief muscle contraction is observed. This is because, at a steady state, the inductor acts like a short...
Motor Units
Motor units come in different sizes, with smaller units...
Muscle Stimulation Frequency
Wave summation
At low firing rates, motor neurons induce individual twitch contractions in muscle fibers. These twitches...
Generation of Action Potential in Skeletal Muscles
Like neurons, muscle cells are also regarded as excitable due to their capacity to change in response to stimuli, primarily due to voltage-gated ion channels embedded in their plasma membranes, which get activated by alterations in the...

