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Neurulation is the embryological process which forms the precursors of the central nervous system and occurs after gastrulation has established the three primary cell layers of the embryo: ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. In humans, the majority of this system is formed via primary neurulation, in which the central portion of the ectoderm—originally appearing as a flat sheet of cells—folds upwards and inwards, sealing off to form a hollow neural tube. As development proceeds, the...
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The spinal cord resides within the protective confines of the vertebral column. It is the main pathway for information traveling between the brain and the body. It plays a fundamental role in nearly all bodily functions, from simple reflexes to complex motor movements. The spinal cord begins at the medulla oblongata at the base of the brainstem and extends downward, terminating at the conus medullaris near the first and second lumbar vertebrae. The spinal cord's length in adults is...
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The nervous system is one of the most complex systems in our body. It is organized into two main divisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
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Each cerebral hemisphere can be divided into three main regions. The outermost region, the cerebral cortex, is a thin layer (2 to 4 millimeters thick) made up of gray matter, consisting of neuron cell bodies, dendrites, glial cells, and blood vessels. The middle region, or white matter, is primarily composed of myelinated nerve fibers organized into three types of large tracts: association fibers, commissures, and projection fibers. Association fibers connect different areas within the same...
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The brain is an integral component of the nervous system and serves as the center for processing sensory inputs, making decisions, and directing bodily actions. This complex organ is organized into three primary sections: the hindbrain, midbrain, and forebrain, each responsible for a range of vital functions.
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The cross-sectional anatomy of the spinal cord offers a detailed view of its complex structure and function within the central nervous system. At the core of the spinal cord lies the gray matter, characterized by its butterfly or "H"-shaped appearance in cross-section. This central region is enveloped by white matter, with the overall structure divided into symmetrical halves by the dorsal median sulcus and the ventral median fissure.
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Updated: Jul 16, 2025

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Hemichordates' diffuse "skin brain" shows unexpected complexity.

Alexandra Kerbl1, Gáspár Jékely1

  • 1Centre for Organismal Studies (COS), University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany.

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Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Hemichordates, close relatives of chordates, possess a surprisingly complex nervous system. This discovery sheds light on the evolution of the chordate nervous system and its origins.

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Area of Science:

  • Neurobiology
  • Evolutionary Biology
  • Zoology

Background:

  • Hemichordates are evolutionarily significant as close relatives to chordates.
  • Chordate-like nervous system patterning is observed in hemichordates.
  • The detailed neural architecture of hemichordates remains largely unknown.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the neuroanatomy of hemichordates.
  • To understand the complexity of the hemichordate nervous system.
  • To gain insights into the origins of chordate nervous systems.

Main Methods:

  • Detailed neuroanatomical analysis of hemichordate nervous systems.
  • Comparative neurobiology approaches.

Main Results:

  • Hemichordates exhibit unexpected neuroanatomical complexity.
  • The study reveals intricate neural structures within hemichordates.

Conclusions:

  • The findings challenge previous assumptions about hemichordate neural complexity.
  • This research provides crucial information for understanding chordate nervous system evolution.