Surface modulation for highly efficient and stable perovskite solar cells

Defects formed by halide ion escape and wettability of the perovskite absorber are essential limiting factors in achieving high performance of perovskite solar cells (PSCs). Herein, a series of ionic organic modulators are designed to contain halide anions to prevent defect formation and improve the surface tension of the perovskite absorber. It was found that the surface modulator containing Br anions is the most effective one due to its capability in bonding with the undercoordinated Pb²⁺ ions to reduce charge recombination. Moreover, this surface modulator effectively creates a suitable energy level between the perovskite and hole transport layer to promote carrier transfer. In addition, the surface modulator forms a chemisorbed capping layer on the perovskite surface to improve its hydrophobicity. As a result, the efficiency of PSCs based on surface modulators containing Br anion enhances to 23.32% from 21.08% of the control device. The efficiency of unencapsulated PSCs with a surface modulator retains 75.42% of its initial value under about 35% humidity stored in the air for 28 days, while the control device only maintained 44.49% of its initial efficiency. The excellent stability originates from the hydrophobic perovskite surface after capping the surface modulator.