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Updated: Jul 15, 2025

Experimental Multiscale Methodology for Predicting Material Fouling Resistance
Anti-Fouling Properties of Phosphonium Ionic Liquid Coatings in the Marine Environment
Sajith Kaniyadan Baiju1,2,3, Brent James Martin4, Rayleen Fredericks1,2,3
1Department of Chemical and Process Engineering, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8140, New Zealand.
Abstract:
Biofouling is the buildup of marine organisms on a submerged material. This research tests the efficacy of phosphonium ion gels comprising phosphonium monomers ([P444VB][AOT] and [P888VB][AOT]) and free ionic liquid ([P4448][AOT], [P88814][AOT]) (10 to 50 wt%), varying copper(II) oxide biocide concentrations (0 to 2 wt%), and the docusate anion [AOT]- for added hydrophobicity. The efficacy of these formulations was tested using a seachest simulator protected from light and tidal currents in New Zealand coastal waters over the summer and autumn periods. Anti-fouling performance was correlated with the hydrophobicity of the surface (water contact angle: 14-131°) and biocide concentration. Formulations with higher hydrophobicity (i.e., less free ionic liquid and longer alkyl chain substituents) displayed superior anti-fouling performance. The presence of the copper(II) biocide negatively affected anti-fouling performance via significant increases to hydrophilicity. No correlation was observed between antimicrobial activity and anti-fouling performance. Overall, phosphonium ion gels show potential for combining anti-fouling and foul release properties.
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