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Related Concept Videos

Antiarrhythmic Drugs: Class I Agents as Sodium Channel Blockers01:22

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Class I antiarrhythmic drugs are used to treat various types of arrhythmias or irregular heart rhythms. These drugs block the sodium (Na+) channels in the cardiac cells, thereby affecting the movement of electrical impulses across the heart. Class I antiarrhythmic drugs are divided into three subgroups: Class IA, Class IB, and Class IC, each with distinct mechanisms of action and effects on the heart.
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EDTA titrations are usually carried out in highly basic conditions, where the fully deprotonated form of EDTA, Y4−, actively complexes with the free metal ions in the solution. Several metal ions precipitate as hydrous oxide (hydroxides, oxides, or oxyhydroxides) under these conditions, lowering the concentration of free metal ions in the solution. For this reason, auxiliary complexing agents or ligands such as ammonia, tartrate, citrate, or triethanolamine are used in EDTA titrations to...
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Titration of Polyprotic Base with a Strong Acid01:18

Titration of Polyprotic Base with a Strong Acid

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The titration of a polyprotic base such as sodium carbonate with a strong acid such as hydrochloric acid results in two equivalence points on the titration curve. At the first equivalence point, the carbonate ions in the base are completely converted to bicarbonate ions. The second equivalence point corresponds to the complete conversion of bicarbonate ions to carbonic acid, which dissociates into carbon dioxide and water. The region before the first equivalence point corresponds to the...
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EDTA: Chemistry and Properties01:22

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Polydentate ligands are most widely used in complexometric titrations because they form more stable complexes with the metal ions than mono- or bidentate ligands due to the chelate effect. Examples of polydentate ligands are ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), crown ethers, and cryptands. The most important feature of optimal polydentate ligands is the ability to form 1:1 complexes in a single-step process. Amino carboxylic acid derivatives are frequently used as complexing agents. EDTA is...
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Antiarrhythmic Drugs: Class IV Agents as Calcium Channel Blockers01:20

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Class IV antiarrhythmic drugs, such as verapamil and diltiazem, block calcium channels. They primarily affect the heart, slowing the conduction in calcium-dependent tissues like the SA and AV nodes. These drugs manage reentrant supraventricular tachycardia (SVT) and reduce ventricular rate in atrial flutter/fibrillation.
Verapamil, a calcium channel blocker, inhibits calcium movement across myocardial cell membranes and vascular smooth muscle. This results in the dilation of coronary and...
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Antiarrhythmic Drugs: Class II Agents as β-Adrenergic Blockers01:24

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Adrenergic stimulation generally impacts cardiac rate and rhythm. Specifically, stimulation of the β-adrenoceptors triggers an increase in intracellular calcium ion influx and pacemaker currents, which may cause arrhythmias. Catecholamines like adrenaline also demonstrate β2-adrenoceptor-mediated hypokalemia, impacting cardiac action potential and disrupting the normal cardiac rhythm. Class II antiarrhythmic drugs are β-adrenoceptor antagonists or β-blockers, which...
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Erythorbic Acid and Sodium Erythorbate.

Preethi S Raj1, Wilma F Bergfeld2, Donald V Belsito2

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International Journal of Toxicology
|September 28, 2023
PubMed
Summary

Erythorbic Acid and Sodium Erythorbate are safe for cosmetic use. The Expert Panel confirmed their safety based on recent studies and current product concentrations.

Keywords:
CosmeticsErythorbic AcidSafetySodium Erythorbate

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Area of Science:

  • Cosmetic Science
  • Dermatology
  • Toxicology

Background:

  • Erythorbic Acid and Sodium Erythorbate are commonly used cosmetic ingredients.
  • Previous safety assessments were conducted in 1999.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To re-evaluate the safety of Erythorbic Acid and Sodium Erythorbate in cosmetics.
  • To consider updated scientific data and current usage patterns.

Main Methods:

  • Review of newly available scientific studies.
  • Analysis of updated product types and ingredient concentrations.
  • Expert panel assessment of safety data.

Main Results:

  • The Expert Panel reviewed extensive new data since the 1999 assessment.
  • Updated information on product types and concentrations of use was considered.

Conclusions:

  • Erythorbic Acid and Sodium Erythorbate are confirmed safe for cosmetic ingredient use.
  • Safety is assured within the described practices of use and concentration levels.