Immune Regulation of Seminal Plasma on the Endometrial Microenvironment: Physiological and Pathological Conditions

Seminal plasma (SP) accounts for more than 90% of semen volume. It induces inflammation, regulates immune tolerance, and facilitates embryonic development and implantation in the female reproductive tract. In the physiological state, SP promotes endometrial decidualization and causes changes in immune cells such as macrophages, natural killer cells, regulatory T cells, and dendritic cells. This leads to the secretion of cytokines and chemokines and also results in the alteration of miRNA profiles and the expression of genes related to endometrial tolerance and angiogenesis. Together, these changes modulate the endometrial immune microenvironment and contribute to implantation and pregnancy. However, in pathological situations, abnormal alterations in SP due to advanced age or poor diet in men can interfere with a woman's immune adaptation to pregnancy, negatively affecting embryo implantation and even the health of the offspring. Uterine pathologies such as endometriosis and endometritis can cause the endometrium to respond negatively to SP, which can further contribute to pathological progress and interfere with conception. The research on the mechanism of SP in the endometrium is conducive to the development of new targets for intervention to improve reproductive outcomes and may also provide new ideas for semen-assisted treatment of clinical infertility.