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Related Concept Videos

Insulin: The Receptor and Signaling Pathways01:28

Insulin: The Receptor and Signaling Pathways

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Insulin action is mediated through a receptor tyrosine kinase, akin to the IGF-1 receptor. The number of receptors per cell varies significantly, from 40 on erythrocytes to 300,000 on adipocytes and hepatocytes. The insulin receptor consists of linked α/β subunit dimers, forming a heterotetramer glycoprotein with two extracellular α subunits and two β subunits spanning the membrane. The α subunits inhibit the inherent tyrosine kinase activity of the β subunits, but...
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Insulin Secretory Vesicles01:05

Insulin Secretory Vesicles

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Insulin secretory vesicles release insulin to stimulate blood glucose uptake and regulate carbohydrate metabolism. When the blood glucose levels increase, glucose enters the pancreatic β-islet cells through glucose transporters. Once inside, glucose is metabolized through glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain, producing ATP. This increase in ATP concentration closes ATP-sensitive potassium channels, leading to depolarization of the membrane and the opening of...
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Glucose Homeostasis: Pancreatic Islets and Insulin Secretion01:27

Glucose Homeostasis: Pancreatic Islets and Insulin Secretion

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The pancreatic islets comprising only 1%-2% of the volume are highly vascularized and innervated mini-organs. They contain five endocrine cell types, including β cells that secrete insulin, which is synthesized as a single polypeptide chain, preproinsulin, processed to proinsulin, and finally to insulin and C-peptide. This process is complex and regulated, involving the Golgi complex, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the secretory granules of the β cell.
Insulin and C-peptide are...
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Insulin: Biosynthesis, Chemistry, and Preparation01:25

Insulin: Biosynthesis, Chemistry, and Preparation

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The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of pancreatic β-cells synthesizes preproinsulin, which consists of a signal peptide, A and B chains, and a C-peptide. Preproinsulin is then cleaved and folded into proinsulin, which translocates to the Golgi apparatus for sorting and packaging into secretory granules. In these granules, enzymatic clipping generates insulin and C-peptide.
Damage or functional impairment of β-cells inhibits insulin production, leading to diabetes. Diabetes treatment...
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PI3K/mTOR/AKT Signaling Pathway01:22

PI3K/mTOR/AKT Signaling Pathway

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The mammalian target of rapamycin  (mTOR) is a serine/threonine kinase that regulates growth, proliferation, and cell survival in response to hormones, growth factors, or nutrient availability. This kinase exists in two structurally and functionally distinct forms: mTOR complex 1  (mTORC1) and mTOR complex 2  (mTORC2). The first form (mTORC1) is composed of a rapamycin-sensitive Raptor and proline-rich Akt substrate, PRAS40. In contrast,  mTORC2 consists of a...
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Hormones Regulating Blood Glucose01:16

Hormones Regulating Blood Glucose

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Insulin is released by beta cells of the pancreas when blood glucose levels are high. It facilitates glucose absorption and utilization in insulin-dependent cells with insulin receptors on their plasma membranes. Insulin promotes glucose uptake by increasing the number of glucose transport proteins in the cell membrane, allowing glucose to enter the cell. As a result, glucose utilization and ATP production are enhanced.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 13, 2025

Studying the Hypothalamic Insulin Signal to Peripheral Glucose Intolerance with a Continuous Drug Infusion System into the Mouse Brain
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Insulin signaling in development.

Miyuki Suzawa1, Michelle L Bland1

  • 1Department of Pharmacology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA.

Development (Cambridge, England)
|October 17, 2023
PubMed
Summary

Nutrient intake is essential, but insulin and related hormones are crucial for animal growth and development. These hormones regulate metabolism and cell functions, with disruptions causing diabetes.

Area of Science:

  • Endocrinology
  • Developmental Biology
  • Molecular Biology

Background:

  • Nutrient intake alone is insufficient for animal growth; hormonal regulation is critical.
  • Insulin and homologous hormones (e.g., insulin-like growth factors) mediate nutrient status between organs.
  • Defects in insulin production or signaling lead to metabolic disorders like hyperglycemia and diabetes.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To describe the insulin hormone family and their signal transduction pathways.
  • To highlight the role of insulin signaling in coordinating maternal-fetal metabolism and growth during pregnancy.
  • To discuss insulin secretion regulation across life stages and its role in cell growth, stem cell proliferation, and differentiation.

Main Methods:

  • Review and synthesis of existing literature on insulin hormone family and signaling pathways.
Keywords:
DevelopmentIGFInsulin

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Endothelial Cell Co-culture Mediates Maturation of Human Embryonic Stem Cell to Pancreatic Insulin Producing Cells in a Directed Differentiation Approach
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Endothelial Cell Co-culture Mediates Maturation of Human Embryonic Stem Cell to Pancreatic Insulin Producing Cells in a Directed Differentiation Approach

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Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jul 13, 2025

Studying the Hypothalamic Insulin Signal to Peripheral Glucose Intolerance with a Continuous Drug Infusion System into the Mouse Brain
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Live Images of GLUT4 Protein Trafficking in Mouse Primary Hypothalamic Neurons Using Deconvolution Microscopy
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Endothelial Cell Co-culture Mediates Maturation of Human Embryonic Stem Cell to Pancreatic Insulin Producing Cells in a Directed Differentiation Approach
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  • Analysis of insulin's role in development across diverse model organisms (C. elegans, Drosophila, zebrafish, mouse, human).

    • Main Results:

    • Insulin and related hormones are essential for coordinating growth and metabolism with nutrient availability.
    • Insulin signaling is vital for maternal-fetal metabolic coordination, regulated secretion across life stages, and cellular processes like growth and differentiation.
    • Dysregulation of insulin signaling is implicated in developmental and metabolic diseases.

    Conclusions:

    • Insulin and its related hormones are indispensable regulators of animal growth, metabolism, and development.
    • Understanding insulin signaling pathways provides insights into normal development and diseases such as diabetes.
    • The conserved roles of insulin signaling across model organisms underscore its fundamental importance in biology.