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Bernoulli's Principle

Bernoulli's Principle

Bernoulli's equation incorporates how fluid pressure changes across a static, incompressible fluid by equating the kinetic energy contribution to zero. It is also helpful in analyzing horizontal flows in which the gravitational energy density is constant throughout. The latter equation is so useful that it is called Bernoulli's principle. According to Bernoulli's principle, the fluid pressure drops if the speed increases and vice versa.
Bernoulli's principle has several applications. It is used...

Excess Pressure Inside a Drop and a Bubble

Excess Pressure Inside a Drop and a Bubble

The shape of a small drop of liquid can be considered spherical, neglecting the effect of gravity. This drop can further be considered as two equal hemispherical drops put together due to surface tension. The forces acting on the spherical drop are due to the pressure of the liquid inside the drop, the pressure due to air outside the drop, and the force due to the surface tension acting on the two hemispherical drops.

Deriving the Speed of Sound in a Liquid

Deriving the Speed of Sound in a Liquid

As with waves on a string, the speed of sound or a mechanical wave in a fluid depends on the fluid's elastic modulus and inertia. The two relevant physical quantities are the bulk modulus and the density of the material. Indeed, it turns out that the relationship between speed and the bulk modulus and density in fluids is the same as that between the speed and the Young's modulus and density in solids.
The speed of sound in fluids can be derived by considering a mechanical wave propagating...

Surface Tension of Fluid

Surface Tension of Fluid

Surface tension is a fundamental property of fluids, occurring at the boundary between a liquid and a gas or between two immiscible liquids. This phenomenon arises from the cohesive forces between molecules at the fluid's surface, creating an effect similar to a stretched elastic membrane. Inside each fluid, molecules are equally attracted in all directions by neighboring molecules, but surface molecules experience a net inward force, resulting in surface tension.
Surface tension varies with...

Free Jet

Free Jet

Free jets describe the flow of liquid exiting a reservoir through an opening into the atmosphere without resistance. The velocity (v) of the liquid jet is derived using Bernoulli's principle and expressed as:

Design Example: Flow Through a Fire Extinguisher

Design Example: Flow Through a Fire Extinguisher

A fire extinguisher that uses pressurized water relies on fluid dynamics principles to generate a high-velocity stream capable of suppressing flames. The water is stored at a much higher pressure inside the extinguisher than the surrounding atmosphere. This pressure difference forces the water to flow rapidly when the extinguisher is activated, and the behavior of the water as it exits the nozzle can be understood using fundamental equations of fluid dynamics.
The key to understanding how the...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 21, 2026

Manufacture of Concentrated, Lipid-based Oxygen Microbubble Emulsions by High Shear Homogenization and Serial Concentration

Manufacture of Concentrated, Lipid-based Oxygen Microbubble Emulsions by High Shear Homogenization and Serial Concentration

Published on: May 26, 2014

Physical Properties of Ultrafine Bubbles Generated Using a Generator System.

Shingo Miyamoto¹, Toyofumi Hirakawa², Yukiko Noguchi³

¹Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, School of Medicine, Iwate Medical University, Iwate, Japan; smiya@fukuoka-u.ac.jp.

In Vivo (Athens, Greece)

|October 31, 2023

Summary

Ultrafine bubbles (UFBs) can be generated at high concentrations and remain stable for up to six months. This research confirms UFBs

Keywords:

Ultrafine bubbles cavitation hydrodynamics hydrophobic gas ultrasonics

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Last Updated: Jul 21, 2026

Manufacture of Concentrated, Lipid-based Oxygen Microbubble Emulsions by High Shear Homogenization and Serial Concentration

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Published on: May 26, 2014

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Production of Membrane-Filtered Phase-Shift Decafluorobutane Nanodroplets from Preformed Microbubbles

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Published on: March 23, 2021

Area of Science:

Nanotechnology
Biotechnology
Physical Chemistry

Background:

Ultrafine bubbles (UFBs) exhibit promising physical and biological properties.
Challenges exist in determining optimal UFB concentrations and lifespans for biological applications.
Understanding UFB stability is crucial for their effective use in research.

Purpose of the Study:

To determine the maximum concentration and longest lifespan of UFBs.
To assess the validity of UFBs for evaluating cell properties.
To investigate UFB behavior in ultrapure water and cell culture media.

Main Methods:

UFBs were generated using a specialized system with various gases.
Nanoparticle tracking analysis measured UFB size and concentration.
UFB stability was monitored over six months in different solutions.

Main Results:

UFB concentration increased with generator operation time, reaching a stable state.
UFBs maintained approximately 70% of their initial concentration for up to six months.
UFB size increased slightly initially and remained stable thereafter.
Nitrogen gas UFBs significantly affected cell numbers at various concentrations.

Conclusions:

The UFB generator system produces controllable concentrations at suitable temperatures.
UFBs demonstrate long-term stability, making them suitable for cell culture applications.
This study validates UFBs as a tool for assessing cell properties.