Membrane electrodes, also known as p-ion electrodes, use membranes that selectively interact with free analyte ions, generating a potential difference across the membrane. The resulting membrane potential, known as the asymmetry potential, is not zero even when analyte concentrations on both sides of the membrane are equal. The membrane's response is typically not selective to a single analyte but proportional to the concentration of all ions in the sample solution capable of interacting at...

Reference electrodes serve as a stable reference point for potentiometric measurements, while indicator and working electrodes react to variations in the composition of a solution.
The Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) is a widely used reference electrode that maintains zero potential across all temperatures. However, its need for a continuous hydrogen gas supply renders it impractical for everyday use.
An alternative to SHE is the Saturated Calomel Electrode (SCE). This electrode features an...

Controlled-potential coulometry, also known as potentiostatic coulometry, employs a three-electrode system in which the working electrode's potential is precisely regulated using a potentiostat. Platinum working electrodes are utilized for positive potentials, while mercury pool electrodes are favored for extremely negative potentials. The platinum counter electrode is separated from the analyte using a membrane or salt bridge to avoid interference in the analysis.
The chosen potential...

Potentiometry is an analytical technique that measures the potential difference between two electrodes in an electrochemical cell without drawing any significant current that could alter the solution's composition. This method employs an indicator electrode, which exchanges electrons with the analyte solution, and a reference electrode with a constant potential. Each electrode is immersed in a solution comprised of two half-cells. In a conventional setup, the reference electrode serves as...

Potentiometric titration is a quantitative analytical technique that determines the concentration of an analyte by measuring the potential difference between the two electrodes in the solution. The endpoint of a potentiometric titration is the point at which there is a significant change in the potential difference. It occurs when the stoichiometric reaction between the analyte and the titrant is complete. The endpoint is usually determined graphically by plotting the measured potential...

 Electrochemical measurements are conducted in an electrochemical cell composed of various components that control and measure the current and potential. One fundamental component is electrodes, conductive materials that enable electron transfer reactions at their surfaces.
There are two main types of electrodes in electrochemical cells. The first type, known as the working or indicator electrode, has a potential that is sensitive to the analyte's concentration and reacts to changes in...