β-Carbolines norharman and harman change neurobehavior causing neurological damage in Caenorhabditis elegans

β-Carbolines norharman and harman, belonging to the class of heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs), are typical hazardous substances produced during the thermal processing of food. Compared to other HAAs, there have been limited reports on the toxicity of β-carbolines. Nevertheless, the current studies are concerned with the neurotoxic effects of norharman and harman at high doses. It is still unknown whether the relatively low dose of β-carbolines in foods induces neurotoxicity and the mechanism of the toxicity. In this study, C. elegans was exposed to a series of gradients of norharman and harman (0, 0.05, 5, and 10 mg L^-1). The survival rate and indicators of ethology (locomotor behaviors, foraging behavior, and chemotaxis ability) were assessed. The antioxidant system and the contents of neurotransmitters, as well as the activity of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), were evaluated. Additionally, the RNA-seq screening of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) revealed the potential molecular mechanisms of norharman- and harman-induced toxic effects. Our results indicated that the risk of long-term exposure to norharman and harman at low doses (food-related doses) should be emphasized. Moreover, β-carbolines might induce neurotoxicity by causing oxidative damage, regulating the content of neurotransmitters, and interfering with cytochrome P450 metabolism. This study would provide a toxicological basis for the neurotoxicity of β-carbolines and lay the foundation for the risk assessment of endogenous pollutants in food.