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Related Concept Videos

The Physiology of Taste01:24

The Physiology of Taste

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The perception of a salty flavor is facilitated by sodium ions within the oral salivary fluid. Upon consumption of a salty substance, salt crystals disassemble, leading to the liberation of its constituents—Na+ and Cl- ions. These ions subsequently dissolve into the salivary fluid present in the oral cavity. The external environment of the gustatory cells experiences an elevation in Na+ concentration, thereby establishing a potent concentration gradient. This gradient propels the...
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Gustation01:43

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Gustation is a chemical sense that, along with olfaction (smell), contributes to our perception of taste. It starts with the activation of receptors by chemical compounds (tastants) dissolved in the saliva. The saliva and filiform papillae on the tongue distribute the tastants and increase their exposure to the taste receptors.
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Taste Buds and Receptors01:20

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Gustation, or the sense of taste, is intrinsically linked to the anatomical structures located on the tongue. This organ's surface, along with the entirety of the oral cavity, is adorned with stratified squamous epithelium. Evident on the tongue are elevated structures known as papillae (singular = papilla), which house the mechanisms for the transduction of gustatory stimuli. Four distinct types of papillae exist, each identified by their unique morphological attributes: the circumvallate,...
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Physiology of Smell and Olfactory Pathway01:20

Physiology of Smell and Olfactory Pathway

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Humans detect odors with the help of specialized cells located in the upper part of the nasal cavity, called olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs). ORNs possess hair-like structures called cilia, which are receptive to sensations from the inhaled air. When an odorant molecule binds to a specific receptor on the cell of the cilia, it leads to a series of events that ultimately cause the ORN to send electrical signals to the olfactory bulb in the brain through the olfactory nerves.
The olfactory...
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G-Protein Gated Ion Channels01:21

G-Protein Gated Ion Channels

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GPCRs are primarily responsible for our sense of smell, taste, and vision.  The binding of a sensory stimulus activates GPCR to stimulate effector proteins, many of which are ion channels in the sensory organs. GPCRs modulate the opening and closing of the target ion channels either directly by binding them, or by releasing second messengers that activate these channels. As ions move across the membrane, the membrane potential is altered, which induces an appropriate response.
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Neural Regulation01:37

Neural Regulation

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Digestion begins with a cephalic phase that prepares the digestive system to receive food. When our brain processes visual or olfactory information about food, it triggers impulses in the cranial nerves innervating the salivary glands and stomach to prepare for food.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 10, 2025

Whole-Mount Staining, Visualization, and Analysis of Fungiform, Circumvallate, and Palate Taste Buds
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Parallel neural pathways control sodium consumption and taste valence.

Yameng Zhang1, Allan-Hermann Pool2, Tongtong Wang1

  • 1Division of Biology and Biological Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA, USA.

Cell
|November 21, 2023
PubMed
Summary

The brain switches salt preference based on sodium levels. Distinct neural circuits in the hindbrain and forebrain control salt

Keywords:
appetitehomeostatic neural circuitsinternal stateprostaglandinsalt attractionsalt aversionsensory modulationsodium homeostasistaste

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Last Updated: Jul 10, 2025

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Taste Perception
  • Homeostasis

Background:

  • The hedonic value of salt changes with internal states, shifting from aversion when sated to appetite when sodium-depleted.
  • Neural mechanisms behind this state-dependent salt valence switch are not well understood.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To elucidate the neural circuits controlling the state-dependent valence of salt.
  • To identify specific cell types and molecular pathways involved in salt taste perception and tolerance.

Main Methods:

  • Transcriptomics for state-to-cell-type mapping.
  • Neural manipulations in mammalian models.
  • Electrophysiological recordings to assess taste sensitivity.

Main Results:

  • Distinct neural circuits in the hindbrain and forebrain (lamina terminalis, LT) control salt valence.
  • A specific class of LT neurons expressing the prostaglandin E2 receptor (Ptger3) encodes salt tolerance.
  • These LT neurons modulate aversive taste sensitivity via a prostaglandin E2-Ptger3 axis.

Conclusions:

  • Salt preference is bidirectionally regulated by distinct appetitive (hindbrain) and tolerance (forebrain LT) signals.
  • This bimodal regulation dictates sodium consumption based on the body's internal state.
  • Identified a novel role for the prostaglandin E2-Ptger3 pathway in modulating salt taste aversion.