A comparison of dissection and 3D approaches to estimate muscle physiological cross-sectional area, validated by in...

Performance traits such as bite forces are crucial to fitness and relate to the niche and adaptation of species. However, for many insects it is not possible to directly measure bite forces because they are too small. Biomechanical models of bite forces are therefore relevant to test hypotheses of adaptation in insects and other small organisms. Although such models are based on classical mechanics, combining forces, material properties and laws of levers, it is currently unknown how various models relate to bite forces measured in vivo. One critical component of these models is the physiological cross-sectional area (PCSA) of muscles, which relates to the maximum amount of force they can produce. Here, using the grasshopper Schistocerca gregaria, we compare various ways to obtain PCSA values and use in vivo measurements of bite forces to validate the biomechanical models. We show that most approaches used to derive PCSA (dissection, 3D muscle convex hull volume, muscle attachment area) are consistent with the expected relationships between PCSA and bite force, as well as with the muscle stress values known for insects. The only exception to this are PCSA values estimated by direct 3D muscle volume computation, which could be explained by noisy variation produced by shrinkage. This method therefore produces PCSA values which are uncorrelated to in vivo bite forces. Furthermore, despite the fact that all other methods do not significantly differ from expectations, their derived PCSA values vary widely, suggesting a lack of comparability between studies relying on different methods.