Retinal Findings and Cardiovascular Risk: Prognostic Conditions, Novel Biomarkers, and Emerging Image Analysis...

Many retinal diseases and imaging findings have pathophysiologic underpinnings in the function of the cardiovascular system. Myriad retinal conditions, new imaging biomarkers, and novel image analysis techniques have been investigated for their association with future cardiovascular risk or utility in cardiovascular risk prognostication. An intensive literature search was performed to identify relevant articles indexed in PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar for a targeted narrative review. This review investigates the literature on specific retinal disease states, such as retinal arterial and venous occlusions and cotton wool spots, that portend significantly increased risk of future cardiovascular events, such as stroke or myocardial infarction, and the implications for personalized patient counseling. Furthermore, conditions diagnosed primarily through retinal bioimaging, such as paracentral acute middle maculopathy and the newly discovered entity known as a retinal ischemic perivascular lesion, may be associated with future incident cardiovascular morbidity and are also discussed. As ever-more-sophisticated imaging biomarkers and analysis techniques are developed, the review concludes with a focused analysis of optical coherence tomography and optical coherence tomography angiography biomarkers under investigation for potential value in prognostication and personalized therapy in cardiovascular disease.