Three-dimensional observations of the electric field distribution of variable frequency microwaves, and scaling-up organic syntheses

Variable Frequency Microwave (VFM) radiation provides a solution to the inhomogeneity of the electric field in the cavity, which has long led to a decline in the reliability of microwave chemical data and its industrial utilization. Herein, we report in-situ three-dimensional experimental measurements of the electric field's uniform distribution of VFMs within a multimode cavity under high power conditions, and their subsequent comparison to Fixed Frequency Microwaves (FFM) that could only be assessed earlier through theoretical analysis. We also examine the consequences of changes in VFM irradiation conditions and elucidate the threshold at which VFM irradiation might prove beneficial in syntheses. With an ultimate focus on the use of VFM microwave radiation toward industrial applications, we carried out an effective synthesis of 4-methylbyphenyl (4-MBP) in the presence of palladium (the catalyst) supported on activated carbon particulates (Pd/AC), and revisited two principal objectives: (a) the effective suppression of discharge phenomena (formation of hot spots), and (b) synthesis scale-up using a 5-fold increase in sample quantity and a 7.5-fold larger reactor size (diameter) than otherwise used in earlier studies.