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Related Concept Videos

Infection01:20

Infection

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When a pathogen enters the body and reproduces, it can cause an infection, damage body cells, and cause illness symptoms that eventually lead to disease. Therefore, its prevention requires breaking the chain of infection.
The chain begins with pathogens: bacteria, viruses, fungi, prions, or parasites such as protozoa helminths. These can be present on the skin as transient or resident flora, or they can be acquired from the environment. Identifying and treating the type of infection and...
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Factors Affecting the Risk of Infection01:26

Factors Affecting the Risk of Infection

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The hosts' susceptibility to infection depends on several factors. The integrity of the skin and mucous membranes helps protect the body against microbial attacks. When the skin is altered, the chance of infection, limb loss, and even death increases.
The integrity and count of the white blood cells help the body resist pathogens and fight infection. When impaired, it reduces the body's resistance to pathogens. The acidic pH levels of the gastrointestinal, genitourinary tracts, and skin...
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Defense Mechanism Against Infection01:26

Defense Mechanism Against Infection

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Natural flora, body system defenses, and inflammation are natural barriers of the body against infectious agents regardless of previous exposure. Normal floras of the human body refer to the microbial population that colonizes the skin and mucous membranes.
In addition, many body organ systems have unique defenses against infection. The skin is an intact, multilayered surface preventing invasion by microorganisms unless impaired. Mucous membranes lining the mouth, nose, and eyelids are barriers...
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Defense Against Bacterial Pathogens01:31

Defense Against Bacterial Pathogens

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The human immune system is a complex network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to defend the body against bacterial infections. It consists of various immune cells, each playing a specific role in the defense mechanism.
Phagocytes
Phagocytes are the frontline soldiers of the immune system. They include neutrophils and macrophages. Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cell and are quickly mobilized to the site of infection. Macrophages are larger cells that patrol...
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Surface Membrane Barriers01:18

Surface Membrane Barriers

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The skin and mucous membranes serve as the primary line of defense against pathogens by providing both physical and chemical protection. These barriers are essential in preventing the entry and establishment of microbes, thereby maintaining the integrity of the host.
The outer layer of the skin, the epidermis, is a robust barrier comprising layers of closely packed keratinized cells. This dense arrangement prevents microbes from penetrating the body. The periodic shedding of epidermal cells...
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Skin Diseases and Disorders01:23

Skin Diseases and Disorders

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Skin is the first line of defense and encounters a variety of microbes. Some pathogenic strains are often the cause of a broad range of infections of the skin and other body systems. These conditions can affect people of all ages and may have different causes, including genetic factors, infections, autoimmune reactions, environmental factors, and lifestyle choices.
Gram-positive Staphylococcus spp. and Streptococcus spp. are responsible for many of the most common skin infections. However, many...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 9, 2025

Investigation of Microbial Cooperation via Imaging Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Bacterial Colonies Grown on Agar and in Tissue During Infection
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The Microbiome and Infectious Diseases.

Louis-Patrick Haraoui1,2,3, Martin J Blaser3,4,5

  • 1Department of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada.

Clinical Infectious Diseases : an Official Publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America
|December 5, 2023
PubMed
Summary

Antibiotic use has significant health impacts beyond antimicrobial resistance (AMR), contributing to noncommunicable diseases by disrupting the human microbiome. A nuanced approach to antibiotic use is crucial for long-term health.

Keywords:
antibioticsantimicrobial resistancedysbiosisinfectious diseasesmicrobiome

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Area of Science:

  • Microbiology
  • Immunology
  • Public Health

Background:

  • Antibiotics revolutionized medicine by treating infections and enabling complex procedures.
  • Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a major consequence of widespread antibiotic use.
  • The human microbiome is increasingly recognized as vital for development and physiology.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To re-evaluate the broad impacts of antibiotic use beyond AMR.
  • To highlight the link between antibiotic-induced microbiome disruption and noncommunicable diseases.
  • To advocate for a more comprehensive risk-benefit analysis of antibiotic interventions.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review and synthesis of emerging scientific evidence.
  • Metaphorical framework (iceberg model) to illustrate the scope of antibiotic effects.
  • Discussion of biological costs and therapeutic strategies.

Main Results:

  • AMR represents only the "tip of the iceberg" of negative antibiotic consequences.
  • Antibiotic use is increasingly linked to noncommunicable diseases (obesity, diabetes, allergies, autoimmune disorders, cancers).
  • Disruption of the microbiota by antibiotics has profound, long-term health implications.

Conclusions:

  • The negative health impacts of antibiotics extend far beyond AMR, affecting multiple physiological systems.
  • A paradigm shift is needed to consider microbiome health in antibiotic prescribing.
  • Future strategies should focus on microbiome preservation and restoration alongside infection control.