Unequal prefecture-level water footprints in China: The urban-rural divide

Water is vital for inclusive human well-being and economic growth, but water and its benefits are not equally distributed to all. The water gap between city dwellers and rural folks was not well understood. In this paper we assessed prefecture-level urban and rural water footprints (WFs) in China, using an improved multi-region input-output (MRIO) table with resolved urban and rural final consumption data. The assessment provided a quantitative foundation for evaluating and explaining urban and rural water use inequality from the consumption perspective. The results showed that per capita urban WF was on average 2.1 times per capita rural WF. The urban-rural WF divide constituted an important contribution to spatial WF inequality, in addition to provincial-level and prefecture-level differences. Compared to previous provincial-level WF analyses, this high-resolution prefecture-level urban and rural analysis showed clear evidence of economically developed urban areas as hotspots of large WFs. Specifically, our results provided a quantitative assessment revealing that 10 % China's population (urban residents in 51 prefectures) appropriated 25.8 % of the national WF. The dominant driving factor for urban-rural per capita WF disparity in all the prefectures was the consumption level, accounting for on average about 84 % of the disparity. There is an urgent need to leverage socio-economic development and urbanization against equitable and sustainable water use. The results have implications to equitable and sustainable water management from a broader macro-economic view.