Lithiation of phosphorus at the nanoscale: a computational study of LiP clusters

Systematic structure prediction of LiP nanoclusters was performed for a wide range of compositions (0 ≤ n ≤ 10, 0 ≤ m ≤ 20) using the evolutionary global optimization algorithm USPEX coupled with density functional calculations. With increasing Li concentration, the number of P-P bonds in the cluster reduces and the phosphorus backbone undergoes the following transformations: elongated tubular → multi-fragment (with mainly P₅ rings and P₇ cages) → cyclic topology → branched topology → P-P dumbbells → isolated P ions. By applying several stability criteria, we determined the most favorable LiP clusters and found that they are located in the compositional area between m ≈ n/3 and m ≈ n/3 + 6. For instance, the Li₃P₇ cluster has the highest stability and is known to be the structural basis of the corresponding bulk crystal. The obtained results provide valuable insights into the lithiation mechanism of nanoscale phosphorus which is of interest for development of novel phosphorus-based anode materials.