Maximizing Photoelectrochemical Performance in Metal-Oxide Hybrid Composites via Amorphous Exsolution-A New...

Exsolution generates metal nanoparticles anchored within crystalline oxide supports, ensuring efficient exposure, uniform dispersion, and strong nanoparticle-perovskite interactions. Increased doping level in the perovskite is essential for further enhancing performance in renewable energy applications; however, this is constrained by limited surface exsolution, structural instability, and sluggish charge transfer. Here, hybrid composites are fabricated by vacuum-annealing a solution containing SrTiO₃ photoanode and Co cocatalyst precursors for photoelectrochemical water-splitting. In situ transmission electron microscopy identifies uniform, high-density Co particles exsolving from amorphous SrTiO₃ films, followed by film-crystallization at elevated temperatures. This unique process extracts entire Co dopants with complete structural stability, even at Co doping levels exceeding 30%, and upon air exposure, the Co particles embedded in the film oxidize to CoO, forming a Schottky junction at the interface. These conditions maximize photoelectrochemical activity and stability, surpassing those achieved by Co post-deposition and Co exsolution from crystalline oxides. Theoretical calculations demonstrate in the amorphous state, dopant─O bonds become weaker while Ti─O bonds remain strong, promoting selective exsolution. As expected from the calculations, nearly all of the 30% Fe dopants exsolve from SrTiO₃ in an H₂ environment, despite the strong Fe─O bond's low exsolution tendency. These analyses unravel the mechanisms driving the amorphous exsolution.