Jove
Visualize
Contact Us
JoVE
x logofacebook logolinkedin logoyoutube logo
ABOUT JoVE
OverviewLeadershipBlogJoVE Help Center
AUTHORS
Publishing ProcessEditorial BoardScope & PoliciesPeer ReviewFAQSubmit
LIBRARIANS
TestimonialsSubscriptionsAccessResourcesLibrary Advisory BoardFAQ
RESEARCH
JoVE JournalMethods CollectionsJoVE Encyclopedia of ExperimentsArchive
EDUCATION
JoVE CoreJoVE BusinessJoVE Science EducationJoVE Lab ManualFaculty Resource CenterFaculty Site
Terms & Conditions of Use
Privacy Policy
Policies

Related Concept Videos

The Evidence for Evolution02:55

The Evidence for Evolution

42.7K
Genetic variations accumulating within populations over generations give rise to biological evolution. Evolutionary changes can result in the formation of novel varieties and entire new species. These changes are responsible for the diverse forms of life inhabiting the planet. The evidence for evolution suggests that all living organisms descended from common ancestors.
42.7K
Cause and Effect01:53

Cause and Effect

10.9K
While variables are sometimes correlated because one does cause the other, it could also be that some other factor, a confounding variable, is actually causing the systematic movement in our variables of interest. For instance, as sales in ice cream increase, so does the overall rate of crime. Is it possible that indulging in your favorite flavor of ice cream could send you on a crime spree? Or, after committing crime do you think you might decide to treat yourself to a cone?
10.9K
Real-World Application of Classical Conditioning01:15

Real-World Application of Classical Conditioning

578
Classical conditioning not only includes the initial pairing of stimuli but also extends to more complex forms, such as higher-order conditioning. Higher-order conditioning involves creating associations beyond the primary conditioned stimulus, resulting in a chain of conditioned responses.
Higher-order, or second-order, conditioning occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes associated with an already established conditioned stimulus through repeated pairings. For instance, if a dog has been...
578
Inductive Reasoning00:59

Inductive Reasoning

60.5K
Inductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that uses related observations to arrive at a general conclusion. It is uncertain and operates in degrees to which the conclusions are credible. As such, inductive arguments can be weak or strong, rather than valid or invalid, and conclusions can be used to formulate testable, falsifiable hypotheses.
Inductive reasoning is common in descriptive science. A life scientist makes observations and records them. This data can be qualitative or...
60.5K
Framing Effects03:26

Framing Effects

7.4K
Information is everywhere and its presentation—such as how and when items are presented—can impact our perceptions and decisions surrounding the info. This broad concept umbrellas framing effects—influences that occur due to the way information is framed in its appearance, whether it’s purely the order or the specific wording of a message. Let’s take a look at numerous ways in which two versions of something can objectively say the same thing, yet we respond in...
7.4K
Social Proof00:52

Social Proof

27.7K
Social proof is a form of persuasion based on comparison and conformity. People compare their behavior and actions to what others are doing and will change to conform to do what their peers do.
27.7K

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by
Same author

Co-Occurrence of Malaria, Pneumonia, and Diarrheal Disease Among Households: A Cohort Study in Rural Western Uganda.

Tropical medicine & international health : TM & IH·2026
Same author

Self-Reported HIV Testing and Diagnosis Prevalence Among US Hispanic or Latino Adults.

JAMA internal medicine·2026
Same author

Combining Observational Studies to Reduce Multiple Biases.

Epidemiology (Cambridge, Mass.)·2026
Same author

Ionising radiation and cancer: a UN review of the recent epidemiological evidence.

The Lancet. Oncology·2026
Same author

Permethrin-Treated Baby Wraps for the Prevention of Malaria in Children. Reply.

The New England journal of medicine·2026
Same author

A Primer on Large-Sample Statistical Inference for Epidemiologists.

Epidemiologic methods·2026

Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 6, 2025

Holistic Facial Composite Creation and Subsequent Video Line-up Eyewitness Identification Paradigm
09:49

Holistic Facial Composite Creation and Subsequent Video Line-up Eyewitness Identification Paradigm

Published on: December 24, 2015

14.2K

Higher-order evidence.

Stephen R Cole1, Bonnie E Shook-Sa2, Paul N Zivich3

  • 1Department of Epidemiology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA. cole@unc.edu.

European Journal of Epidemiology
|January 10, 2024
PubMed
Summary

Higher-order evidence, crucial for refining epidemiologic studies, often overlooks measurement errors. This study introduces third-order evidence to address imperfections in second-order evidence, improving data accuracy.

Keywords:
BiasErrorMeasurementMisclassificationStatisticsValidation data

More Related Videos

A Psychophysics Paradigm for the Collection and Analysis of Similarity Judgments
08:12

A Psychophysics Paradigm for the Collection and Analysis of Similarity Judgments

Published on: March 1, 2022

2.5K
The Modified Temptation Resistance Task: A Paradigm to Elicit Children's Strategic Lie-telling
06:51

The Modified Temptation Resistance Task: A Paradigm to Elicit Children's Strategic Lie-telling

Published on: April 6, 2018

8.5K

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jul 6, 2025

Holistic Facial Composite Creation and Subsequent Video Line-up Eyewitness Identification Paradigm
09:49

Holistic Facial Composite Creation and Subsequent Video Line-up Eyewitness Identification Paradigm

Published on: December 24, 2015

14.2K
A Psychophysics Paradigm for the Collection and Analysis of Similarity Judgments
08:12

A Psychophysics Paradigm for the Collection and Analysis of Similarity Judgments

Published on: March 1, 2022

2.5K
The Modified Temptation Resistance Task: A Paradigm to Elicit Children's Strategic Lie-telling
06:51

The Modified Temptation Resistance Task: A Paradigm to Elicit Children's Strategic Lie-telling

Published on: April 6, 2018

8.5K

Area of Science:

  • Epidemiology
  • Biostatistics
  • Health Research Methods

Background:

  • Higher-order evidence provides meta-evidence about primary study data.
  • Second-order evidence, like misclassification estimates (sensitivity, specificity), is vital but often assumed error-free.
  • Measurement error in higher-order evidence can distort corrections to first-order evidence.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To illustrate scenarios where measurement error in second-order evidence impacts epidemiologic findings.
  • To propose a method using third-order evidence to account for these measurement errors.
  • To emphasize the need for further exploration of higher-order evidence's role in epidemiology.

Main Methods:

  • Presented two examples with multiple scenarios demonstrating imperfectly measured second-order evidence.
  • Introduced the concept and necessity of third-order evidence for correcting measurement error.
  • Analyzed how measurement error in second-order evidence can amplify or attenuate corrections.

Main Results:

  • Demonstrated that measurement error in second-order evidence can significantly alter the impact of evidence corrections.
  • Showcased how these imperfections can either amplify or attenuate standard corrections to first-order evidence.
  • Provided a framework for incorporating third-order evidence to manage these errors.

Conclusions:

  • Acknowledges sampling variability in higher-order evidence but highlights the critical issue of its measurement error.
  • Proposes third-order evidence as a necessary component for addressing measurement imperfections in second-order evidence.
  • Recommends further research and illustration of higher-order evidence's influence on epidemiologic study outcomes.