Source apportionment of fine atmospheric particles in Bloemfontein, South Africa, using positive matrix factorization

Air pollution is of major health and environmental concern globally and in South Africa. Studies on the sources of PM_2.5 air pollution in low- and middle-income countries such as South Africa are limited. This study aimed to identify local and distant sources of PM_2.5 pollution in Bloemfontein. PM_2.5 samples were collected from June 16, 2020 to August 18, 2021. Trace element concentrations were determined by EDXRF spectroscopy. By use of the US EPA PMF 5.0 program, local sources were determined to be combustion/wood burning (49%), industry (22%), soil dust (10%), base metal/pyrometallurgical and traffic (9.6%) and water treatment/industry (9.4%). The HYSPLIT program was applied to determine distant PM_2.5 source areas and the following clusters were identified: Mpumalanga province (52%), Northern Cape province (35%), Indian Ocean (8%) and Atlantic Ocean (6%). The majority of the air was found to come from the Mpumalanga province in the north-east, while the majority of local sources are ascribed to combustion/wood burning. Results from this study can be used to develop an Air Quality Management Plan for Bloemfontein.