3D printed hybrid scaffolds do not induce adverse inflammation in mice and direct human BM-MSC chondrogenesis in...

Biomaterials that can improve the healing of articular cartilage lesions are needed. To address this unmet need, we developed novel 3D printed silica/poly(tetrahydrofuran)/poly(ε-caprolactone) (SiO₂/PTHF/PCL-diCOOH) hybrid scaffolds. Our aim was to carry out essential studies to advance this medical device towards functional validation in pre-clinical trials. First, we show that the chemical composition, microarchitecture and mechanical properties of these scaffolds were not affected by sterilisation with gamma irradiation. To evaluate the systemic and local immunogenic reactivity of the sterilised 3D printed hybrid scaffolds, they were implanted subcutaneously into Balb/c mice. The scaffolds did not trigger a systemic inflammatory response over one week of implantation. The interaction between the host immune system and the implanted scaffold elicited a local physiological reaction with infiltration of mononuclear cells without any signs of a chronic inflammatory response. Then, we investigated how these 3D printed hybrid scaffolds direct chondrogenesis in vitro. Human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (hBM-MSCs) seeded within the 3D printed hybrid scaffolds were cultured under normoxic or hypoxic conditions, with or without chondrogenic supplements. Chondrogenic differentiation assessed by both gene expression and protein production analyses showed that 3D printed hybrid scaffolds support hBM-MSC chondrogenesis. Articular cartilage-specific extracellular matrix deposition within these scaffolds was enhanced under hypoxic conditions (1.7 or 3.7 fold increase in the median of aggrecan production in basal or chondrogenic differentiation media). Our findings show that 3D printed SiO₂/PTHF/PCL-diCOOH hybrid scaffolds have the potential to support the regeneration of cartilage tissue.