Declining groundwater and its impacts along Ganga riverfronts using combined Sentinel-1, GRACE, water levels, and...

The Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) in northern India are vast alluvial tracts with huge shallow aquifers, densely populated and agriculturally productive regions. In the last few decades, IGP has been facing water scarcity driven by erratic monsoon dynamics, anthropogenic activity, and hydroclimatic variability. In urban centers, continuous groundwater withdrawal leads to high stress, affecting surface deformation and a threat to buildings and infrastructures. An attempt has been made to explore the possible linkage and coupling between groundwater level, hydroclimatic variables, and subsidence in the Central Ganga Plains (CGP), in Varanasi metropolis using the combined multisensory multitemporal data, Sentinel-1 (2017-2023), GRACE (2003-2023), groundwater levels (1998-2023), and precipitation (2002-2023). Long-term hydrological response in the CGP shows continuous depletion (14.6 ± 5.6 mm/yr) in response to precipitation variability. Results show spatiotemporal variations between GWS, and precipitation estimate with nonlinear trend response due to associated inter-annual/inter-seasonal climate variability and anthropogenic water withdrawal, specifically during the observed drought years. The significant storage response in the urban center compared to a regional extent suggests the potential impact of exponentially increasing urbanization and building hydrological stress in the cities. The implications of reducing storage capacity show measured land subsidence (∼2-8 mm/yr) patterns developed along the meandering stretch of the Ganga riverfronts in Varanasi. The groundwater level data from the piezometric supports the hydroclimatic variables and subsidence coupling. Considering the vital link between water storage, food security, and socioeconomic growth, the results of this study require systematic inclusion in water management strategies as climate change seriously impacts water resources in the future.