Laser-Synthesized Ru-Anchored Few-Layer Black Phosphorus for Superior Hydrogen Evolution: Role of Acoustic Levitation

Electrochemical water splitting, driven by processed catalysts, is the most reasonable method for hydrogen production. This study demonstrates an activation phenomenon with ruthenium (Ru) nanoclusters on few-layered black phosphorus (BP), greatly enhancing the electrocatalytic hydrogen evolution reaction (HER). Efficient BP exfoliation was achieved using acoustic levitators and pulsed laser irradiation in liquids (PLIL), yielding charge-transfer Ru-nanoclusters on modulated surfaces. Various PLIL parameters were examined for the optimal BP sheet size. After ruthenization, Ru's d-band center facilitated hydrogen adsorption via Ru-H bonding. Synergy between BP's charge-carrier properties and Ru's active sites boosted HER kinetics with an ultralow overpotential of 84 mV at 10 mA/cm² in KOH. Additionally, the RuO₂ || RuBP-2 electrolyzer demonstrated remarkable overall water splitting performance at ∼1.60 V at 10 mA/cm². These results highlight the pivotal role of metal nanoclusters on exfoliated BP surfaces and offer a refined strategy for high-density electrocatalysts in energy conversion.