Aggravated visual toxicity in zebrafish larvae upon co-exposure to titanium dioxide nanoparticles and...

The bioavailability and toxicity of organic pollutants in aquatic organisms can be largely affected by the co-existed nanoparticles. However, the impacts of such combined exposure on the visual system remain largely unknown. Here, we systematically investigated the visual toxicity in zebrafish larvae after single or joint exposure to titanium dioxide nanoparticles (n-TiO₂) and bis(2-ethylhexyl)-2,3,4,5-tetrabromophthalate (TBPH) at environmentally relevant levels. Molecular dynamics simulations revealed the enhanced transmembrane capability of the complex than the individual, which accounted for the increased bioavailability of both TBPH and n-TiO₂ when combined exposure to zebrafish. Transcriptome analysis showed that co-exposure to n-TiO₂ and TBPH interfered with molecular pathways related to eye lens structure and sensory perception of zebrafish. Particularly, n-TiO₂ or TBPH significantly suppressed the expression of βB1-crystallin and rhodopsin in zebrafish retina and lens, which was further enhanced after co-exposure. Moreover, we detected disorganized retinal histology, stunted lens development and significant visual behavioral changes of zebrafish under co-exposure condition. The overall results suggest that combined exposure to water borne n-TiO₂ and TBPH increased their bioavailability, resulted in severer damage to optic nerve development and ultimately abnormal visual behavior patterns, highlighting the higher potential health risks of co-exposure to aquatic vertebrates.