Commentary: Postoperative hypothalamic-pituitary dysfunction and long-term hormone replacement in patients with...

The small, pea-sized pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain. It is crucial in regulating various bodily functions, from growth to reproduction. The gland is divided into the anterior lobe and the posterior lobe. The secretory cell clusters in the pars distalis of the anterior pituitary lobe are controlled by hypothalamic regulators and synthesize six primary hormones.
The most abundantly secreted hormone from the anterior lobe is the growth hormone, which controls overall growth by...

Without prolonged fasting, healthy individuals maintain blood glucose levels above 3.5 mM due to a well-adapted neuroendocrine counterregulatory system that effectively prevents acute hypoglycemia, a potentially life-threatening condition. The primary clinical scenarios for hypoglycemia encompass diabetes treatment, inappropriate production of endogenous insulin or insulin-like substances by tumors, and the use of glucose-lowering agents in non-diabetic individuals. Notably, hypoglycemia in the...

Hormones, the biochemical messengers produced by endocrine glands, are pivotal in regulating bodily functions and maintaining homeostasis. Each hormone's balance is crucial; imbalances can lead to significant physiological disruptions. Major hormones include oxytocin, cortisol, epinephrine, estrogen, testosterone, thyroxine, growth hormone, insulin, and glucagon.
Oxytocin, produced in the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland, plays a role in social bonding, childbirth, and lactation.

Hypothyroidism is a disorder characterized by insufficient production of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, energy balance, and multiple organ systems.TypesHypothyroidism is classified based on the level of dysfunction. Primary hypothyroidism results from intrinsic thyroid gland dysfunction, causing reduced hormone production despite normal or increased stimulation. Secondary hypothyroidism arises from inadequate thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion by the pituitary. Tertiary...

Cushing syndrome refers to the collection of clinical manifestations that arise when tissues are exposed to excessive amounts of cortisol or cortisol-like medications over an extended period. Cortisol, a glucocorticoid produced by the adrenal cortex, regulates metabolism, immune responses, and the body’s adaptation to stress. When its concentration remains chronically elevated, these physiological pathways become dysregulated, resulting in the characteristic features of the syndrome.Exogenous...

Cortisol production is normally governed by the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, which maintains hormonal balance through tightly regulated feedback mechanisms. Disruption of this regulatory system is central to the development of Cushing syndrome, whether the excess cortisol originates from external medications or internal pathology. Persistent cortisol elevation alters metabolism, immune function, and endocrine signaling, producing the characteristic clinical features of the...