Intranasal boosting with RBD-HR protein vaccine elicits robust mucosal and systemic immune responses

The emergence of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) variants has decreased the efficacy of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines in containing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) over time, and booster vaccination strategies are urgently necessitated to achieve sufficient protection. Intranasal immunization can improve mucosal immunity, offering protection against the infection and sustaining the spread of SARS-CoV-2. In this study, an intranasal booster of the RBD-HR vaccine after two doses of the mRNA vaccine significantly increased the levels of specific binding antibodies in serum, nasal lavage fluid, and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid compared with only two doses of mRNA vaccine. After intranasal boosting with the RBD-HR vaccine, the levels of serum neutralizing antibodies against prototype and variant strains of SARS-CoV-2 pseudoviruses were markedly higher than those in mice receiving mRNA vaccine alone, and intranasal boosting with the RBD-HR vaccine also inhibited the binding of RBD to hACE2 receptors. Furthermore, the heterologous intranasal immunization regimen promoted extensive memory T cell responses and activated CD103⁺ dendritic cells in the respiratory mucosa, and potently enhanced the formation of T follicular helper cells and germinal center B cells in vital immune organs, including mediastinal lymph nodes, inguinal lymph nodes, and spleen. Collectively, these data infer that heterologous intranasal boosting with the RBD-HR vaccine elicited broad protective immunity against SARS-CoV-2 both locally and systemically.