Spaced training activates Miro/Milton-dependent mitochondrial dynamics in neuronal axons to sustain long-term memory

Neurons have differential and fluctuating energy needs across distinct cellular compartments, shaped by brain electrochemical activity associated with cognition. In vitro studies show that mitochondria transport from soma to axons is key to maintaining neuronal energy homeostasis. Nevertheless, whether the spatial distribution of neuronal mitochondria is dynamically adjusted in vivo in an experience-dependent manner remains unknown. In Drosophila, associative long-term memory (LTM) formation is initiated by an early and persistent upregulation of mitochondrial pyruvate flux in the axonal compartment of neurons in the mushroom body (MB). Through behavior experiments, super-resolution analysis of mitochondria morphology in the neuronal soma and in vivo mitochondrial fluorescence recovery after photobleaching (FRAP) measurements in the axons, we show that LTM induction, contrary to shorter-lived memories, is sustained by the departure of some mitochondria from MB neuronal soma and increased mitochondrial dynamics in the axonal compartment. Accordingly, impairing mitochondrial dynamics abolished the increased pyruvate consumption, specifically after spaced training and in the MB axonal compartment, thereby preventing LTM formation. Our results thus promote reorganization of the mitochondrial network in neurons as an integral step in elaborating high-order cognitive processes.