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Batteries and Fuel Cells

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A battery is a galvanic cell that is used as a source of electrical power for specific applications. Modern batteries exist in a multitude of forms to accommodate various applications, from tiny button batteries such as those that power wristwatches to the very large batteries used to supply backup energy to municipal power grids. Some batteries are designed for single-use applications and cannot be recharged (primary cells), while others are based on conveniently reversible cell reactions that...

DC Battery

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A conductor needs to be a component of a path that creates a closed loop or full circuit to have a continuous current flowing through it. A current starts to flow if an electric field is created inside an isolated conductor that is not part of a full circuit. The conductor quickly develops a net positive charge at one end and a net negative charge at the other. These charges generate an electric field opposite the direction of the applied electric field, which reduces the current. Eventually,...

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Long-term potentiation, or LTP, is one of the ways by which synaptic plasticity—changes in the strength of chemical synapses—can occur in the brain. LTP is the process of synaptic strengthening that occurs over time between pre and postsynaptic neuronal connections. The synaptic strengthening of LTP works in opposition to the synaptic weakening of long-term depression (LTD) and together are the main mechanisms that underlie learning and memory.
Hebbian LTP
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Electron Transport Chain: Complex I and II

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The mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) is the main energy generation system in the eukaryotic cells. However, mitochondria also produce cytotoxic reactive oxygen species (ROS) due to the large electron flow during oxidative phosphorylation. While Complex I is one of the primary sources of superoxide radicals, ROS production by Complex II is uncommon and may only be observed in cancer cells with mutated complexes.
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Electrolysis

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In a galvanic cell, the electrical work is done by a redox system on its surroundings as electrons produced by the spontaneous redox reactions are transferred through an external circuit. Alternatively, an external circuit does work on a redox system by imposing a voltage sufficient to drive an otherwise nonspontaneous reaction in a process known as electrolysis. For instance, recharging a battery involves the use of an external power source to drive the spontaneous (discharge) cell reaction in...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 28, 2025

Identification and Quantification of Decomposition Mechanisms in Lithium-Ion Batteries; Input to Heat Flow Simulation for Modeling Thermal Runaway

Identification and Quantification of Decomposition Mechanisms in Lithium-Ion Batteries; Input to Heat Flow Simulation for Modeling Thermal Runaway

Published on: March 7, 2022

Lithium-ion battery second life: pathways, challenges and outlook.

Anisha N Patel¹, Laura Lander², Jyoti Ahuja³

¹Department of Mechanical Engineering, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom.

Frontiers in Chemistry

|April 23, 2024

Summary

Navigating the future of electric vehicle batteries involves choosing between immediate recycling or repurposing them for second-life applications. Clearer policies and standards are needed to optimize these pathways for a sustainable circular economy.

Keywords:

end-of-life lithium-ion battery policy regulation repurposing safety second life state-of-health

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Identification and Quantification of Decomposition Mechanisms in Lithium-Ion Batteries; Input to Heat Flow Simulation for Modeling Thermal Runaway

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Published on: August 12, 2013

Area of Science:

Sustainable Engineering
Circular Economy
Electrification

Background:

Net zero targets are driving transport electrification, leading to a rapidly expanding battery market.
The end-of-life management of these batteries is critical for environmental sustainability and achieving a true circular economy.
Current decision-making processes for battery pathways (recycling vs. second life) and supporting policies are not well-defined.

Purpose of the Study:

To review and analyze the different pathways for end-of-life electric vehicle (EV) batteries.
To discuss the challenges, barriers, and feasibility of immediate recycling versus second-life applications.
To identify policy needs and suggest amendments to support a robust circular economy for EV batteries.

Main Methods:

Literature review and analysis of existing research on battery recycling and second-life applications.
Examination of technical, economic, and environmental factors influencing pathway selection.
Policy analysis to understand their impact on industry behavior and suggest improvements.

Main Results:

Both recycling and second-life pathways face complexities in cell collection, processing, pack disassembly, and battery variability.
Standardization of battery design and end-of-life criteria could enhance sustainability but requires policy intervention.
Policy plays a crucial role in influencing pathway selection and needs strategic amendments to foster both second-life and recycling industries.

Conclusions:

Optimal decision-making for end-of-life EV batteries requires simplified processes and clearly defined criteria.
Policy interventions are essential to streamline the transition of batteries through second-life applications to eventual recycling.
Developing a comprehensive strategy that balances environmental and economic factors is key to a sustainable battery circular economy.