Sense of Agency and Skills Learning in Virtual-Mediated Environment: A Systematic Review

Agency is central to remote actions, and it may enhance skills learning due to a partial overlap between brain structures and networks, the promotion of confidence towards a telemanipulator, and the feeling of congruence of the motor choice to the motor plan. We systematically reviewed studies aiming to verify the role of agency in improving learning. Fifteen studies were selected from MEDLINE and Scopus^®. When a mismatch is introduced between observed and performed actions, the decrease in agency and learning is proportional to the intensity of the mismatch, which is due to greater interference with the motor programming. Thanks to multisensory integration, agency and learning benefit both from sensory and performance feedback and from the timing of feedback based on control at the goal level or the perceptual-motor level. This work constitutes a bedrock for professional teleoperation settings (e.g., robotic surgery), with particular reference to the role of agency in performing complex tasks with remote control.