Carriage of Gardnerella vaginalis and anaerobes in semen

The skin and mucous membranes serve as the primary line of defense against pathogens by providing both physical and chemical protection. These barriers are essential in preventing the entry and establishment of microbes, thereby maintaining the integrity of the host.
The outer layer of the skin, the epidermis, is a robust barrier comprising layers of closely packed keratinized cells. This dense arrangement prevents microbes from penetrating the body. The periodic shedding of epidermal cells...

The journey of sperm from its origin to the point of ejaculation begins within the seminiferous tubules of the testis. Here, Sertoli cells produce fluid that propels non-motile sperm through a series of conduits, starting with the straight tubules leading to the rete testis. This interconnected network of tubules acts as the initial pathway for sperm, guiding them into the efferent ductules and then into the epididymis for maturation.
The maturation phase occurs in the epididymis, where sperm...

Excavata is a diverse group of protists that includes both chemoorganotrophic and phototrophic species, with some thriving in anaerobic environments. Among the key groups within Excavata are diplomonads and parabasalids, which are flagellated protists that lack mitochondria and chloroplasts. These microorganisms typically inhabit anoxic environments, such as the intestines of animals, where they exist either symbiotically or as parasites, relying on fermentation for energy production. Some...

The human urogenital system, once thought to be sterile in healthy individuals, is now recognized as a complex microbial habitat. Advancements in molecular sequencing techniques have revealed that even in healthy adults, the kidneys and bladder harbor microbial populations similar to those found in the distal urethra, albeit in much lower abundance. These resident microorganisms, while generally innocuous, can become opportunistic pathogens under conditions that alter the urogenital...

Giardiasis is a globally prevalent intestinal infection caused by the protozoan parasite Giardia duodenalis (also known as G. lamblia or G. intestinalis). This flagellated protozoan is the most frequently identified intestinal parasite in the United States and worldwide. Transmission primarily occurs via the fecal-oral route, with infection arising from ingestion of water or food contaminated with cysts. Individuals in low-resource settings, international travelers, outdoor enthusiasts, daycare...

Trichomonas vaginalis is a flagellated protozoan parasite and the causative agent of trichomoniasis, one of the most prevalent non-viral sexually transmitted infections in the United States. This extracellular parasite primarily colonizes the lower genitourinary tract in women—particularly the vagina—and in men, the urethra and prostate. Its structural and functional adaptations enable its survival, motility, and pathogenicity within the host environment.Structural Features and Host EntryT.