The roles of essential trace elements in T cell biology

T cells are crucial for adaptive immunity to regulate proper immune response and immune homeostasis. T cell development occurs in the thymus and mainly differentiates into CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ T cell subsets. Upon stimulation, naive T cells differentiate into distinct CD4⁺ helper and CD8⁺ cytotoxic T cells, which mediate immunity homeostasis and defend against pathogens or tumours. Trace elements are minimal yet essential components of human body that cannot be overlooked, and they participate in enzyme activation, DNA synthesis, antioxidant defence, hormone production, etc. Moreover, trace elements are particularly involved in immune regulations. Here, we have summarized the roles of eight essential trace elements (iron, zinc, selenium, copper, iodine, chromium, molybdenum, cobalt) in T cell development, activation and differentiation, and immune response, which provides significant insights into developing novel approaches to modulate immunoregulation and immunotherapy.