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Related Concept Videos

Insulin: Biosynthesis, Chemistry, and Preparation01:25

Insulin: Biosynthesis, Chemistry, and Preparation

1.2K
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of pancreatic β-cells synthesizes preproinsulin, which consists of a signal peptide, A and B chains, and a C-peptide. Preproinsulin is then cleaved and folded into proinsulin, which translocates to the Golgi apparatus for sorting and packaging into secretory granules. In these granules, enzymatic clipping generates insulin and C-peptide.
Damage or functional impairment of β-cells inhibits insulin production, leading to diabetes. Diabetes treatment...
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Insulin Formulations: Types and Delivery01:27

Insulin Formulations: Types and Delivery

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Insulin preparations are categorized by their duration of action into short-acting and long-acting types. Two strategies are used to modify insulin's absorption and pharmacokinetic profile: slowing the absorption post-subcutaneous injection, or altering human insulin's amino acid sequence or protein structure. These changes retain the insulin's ability to bind to the insulin receptor, but alter its behavior in solution or after injection.
Short-acting insulins are divided into...
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Glucose Homeostasis: Pancreatic Islets and Insulin Secretion01:27

Glucose Homeostasis: Pancreatic Islets and Insulin Secretion

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The pancreatic islets comprising only 1%-2% of the volume are highly vascularized and innervated mini-organs. They contain five endocrine cell types, including β cells that secrete insulin, which is synthesized as a single polypeptide chain, preproinsulin, processed to proinsulin, and finally to insulin and C-peptide. This process is complex and regulated, involving the Golgi complex, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the secretory granules of the β cell.
Insulin and C-peptide are...
2.2K
Insulin Secretory Vesicles01:05

Insulin Secretory Vesicles

6.4K
Insulin secretory vesicles release insulin to stimulate blood glucose uptake and regulate carbohydrate metabolism. When the blood glucose levels increase, glucose enters the pancreatic β-islet cells through glucose transporters. Once inside, glucose is metabolized through glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain, producing ATP. This increase in ATP concentration closes ATP-sensitive potassium channels, leading to depolarization of the membrane and the opening of...
6.4K
Insulin: The Receptor and Signaling Pathways01:28

Insulin: The Receptor and Signaling Pathways

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Insulin action is mediated through a receptor tyrosine kinase, akin to the IGF-1 receptor. The number of receptors per cell varies significantly, from 40 on erythrocytes to 300,000 on adipocytes and hepatocytes. The insulin receptor consists of linked α/β subunit dimers, forming a heterotetramer glycoprotein with two extracellular α subunits and two β subunits spanning the membrane. The α subunits inhibit the inherent tyrosine kinase activity of the β subunits, but...
2.8K
Insulin: Dosing Regimen and Adverse Effects01:16

Insulin: Dosing Regimen and Adverse Effects

695
Insulin-replacement therapy usually includes both long-acting insulin (basal) and short-acting insulin (to cater to postprandial needs). In a diverse group of type 1 diabetes patients, the average daily insulin dose is typically 0.5-0.7 units/kg body weight. However, obese patients and pubertal adolescents may need more due to insulin resistance.
The basal dose constitutes about 40%-50% of the total daily dose, with the rest as premeal insulin. The mealtime insulin dose should mirror...
695

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jan 18, 2026

Homogeneous Time-resolved Förster Resonance Energy Transfer-based Assay for Detection of Insulin Secretion
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Homogeneous Time-resolved Förster Resonance Energy Transfer-based Assay for Detection of Insulin Secretion

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Human insulin.

S Raptis, G Dimitriadis

    Clinical Physiology and Biochemistry
    |January 1, 1985
    PubMed
    Summary
    This summary is machine-generated.

    Two types of human insulin, semisynthetic and biosynthetic, offer significant advantages over animal-derived insulins for treating diabetes. Biosynthetic human insulin ensures a reliable supply, making animal insulins obsolete.

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    Area of Science:

    • Endocrinology
    • Biotechnology
    • Pharmacology

    Background:

    • Two primary human insulins are clinically significant: semisynthetic and biosynthetic.
    • Semisynthetic insulin is derived from pork insulin through enzymatic modification.
    • Biosynthetic insulin is produced using recombinant DNA technology in Escherichia coli.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To compare the clinical benefits of semisynthetic and biosynthetic human insulins with animal-derived insulins.
    • To advocate for the use of human insulins in newly diagnosed insulin-dependent diabetes, especially in children.
    • To highlight the advantages of human insulins regarding antibody formation, skin reactions, and absorption.

    Main Methods:

    • Enzymatic modification of pork insulin to create semisynthetic human insulin.
    • Biotechnological synthesis of human insulin in Escherichia coli.
    • Clinical evaluation of immune response, local reactions, and pharmacokinetic profiles.

    Main Results:

    • Human insulins induce lower titers of circulating insulin antibodies compared to animal insulins.
    • Subcutaneous injection of human insulins is associated with fewer skin reactions.
    • Human insulins exhibit more rapid absorption and less degradation at the injection site.
    • Biosynthetic human insulin guarantees a stable and abundant supply.

    Conclusions:

    • Newly diagnosed insulin-dependent diabetes, particularly in children, should be treated with either semisynthetic or biosynthetic human insulin.
    • The consistent supply of biosynthetic human insulin renders pork insulins unnecessary.
    • Beef insulins are considered entirely obsolete due to the availability of superior human insulin preparations.