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The sense of smell is achieved through the activities of the olfactory system. It starts when an airborne odorant enters the nasal cavity and reaches olfactory epithelium (OE). The OE is protected by a thin layer of mucus, which also serves the purpose of dissolving more complex compounds into simpler chemical odorants. The size of the OE and the density of sensory neurons varies among species; in humans, the OE is only about 9-10 cm2.
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Humans detect odors with the help of specialized cells located in the upper part of the nasal cavity, called olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs). ORNs possess hair-like structures called cilia, which are receptive to sensations from the inhaled air. When an odorant molecule binds to a specific receptor on the cell of the cilia, it leads to a series of events that ultimately cause the ORN to send electrical signals to the olfactory bulb in the brain through the olfactory nerves.
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The process of olfaction, also known as the sense of smell, is a sophisticated chemical response system. The specialized sensory neurons that facilitate this process, known as olfactory receptor neurons, are situated in an upper segment of the nasal cavity, known as the olfactory epithelium. Olfactory sensory neurons are bipolar, with their dendrites extending from the epithelium's apex into the mucus that lines the nasal cavity. Airborne molecules, when inhaled, traverse the olfactory...
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The cerebral cortex, the brain's outermost layer, is pivotal in processing complex cognitive tasks, emotions, and various sensory inputs and executing voluntary motor activities. This intricate structure is divided into three primary functional areas: the motor areas, sensory areas, and association areas.
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Sensory impulses related to touch, pressure, vibration, and proprioception from various body parts, such as the limbs, trunk, neck, and posterior head, travel to the cerebral cortex through the posterior column-medial lemniscus pathway. The pathway’s name derives from the two white-matter tracts that convey the impulses: the spinal cord's posterior column and the brainstem's medial lemniscus. First-order sensory neurons extend their axons into the spinal cord, forming the...
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Updated: Jun 22, 2025

A Free-breathing fMRI Method to Study Human Olfactory Function
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Olfactory-trigeminal integration in the primary olfactory cortex.

Prasanna R Karunanayaka1,2,3, Jiaming Lu1,4, Rommy Elyan1

  • 1Department of Radiology, Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, Pennsylvania, USA.

Human Brain Mapping
|July 4, 2024
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Olfactory and trigeminal systems integrate sensory information, enhancing perception. This study reveals brain networks and principles like inverse effectiveness governing this olfactory-trigeminal (OT) integration.

Keywords:
localization tasksmultisensory integrationolfactory systemtrigeminal system

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Sensory Integration
  • Olfaction and Somatosensation

Background:

  • Humans naturally combine olfactory (smell) and intranasal trigeminal (somatosensory) signals.
  • The neural basis of this olfactory-trigeminal (OT) integration is not well understood.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the neural mechanisms of OT integration using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and psychophysics.
  • To explore how olfactory and trigeminal stimuli interact in the brain.

Main Methods:

  • Fifteen healthy participants underwent fMRI while performing a stimulus localization task.
  • Stimuli included air-puffs, phenylethyl alcohol (PEA) odor, or combinations delivered to one or both nostrils.

Main Results:

  • PEA improved weak air-puff localization accuracy when delivered to the same nostril, demonstrating spatial coincidence and inverse effectiveness.
  • Multisensory integration activity was observed in the primary olfactory cortex (POC), orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), and other brain regions.
  • Behavioral and neural measures of integration, including connectivity, were correlated.

Conclusions:

  • The primary olfactory cortex (POC) is a key component of the brain network mediating olfactory-trigeminal (OT) integration.
  • OT integration follows established principles of multisensory processing, such as inverse effectiveness.
  • Neural activity and connectivity changes reflect behavioral improvements in OT integration.