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Related Concept Videos

Notch Signaling Pathway03:14

Notch Signaling Pathway

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The Notch signaling pathway is a major intracellular signaling pathway that is highly conserved over a broad spectrum of metazoan species. It stands unique from other intracellular signaling mechanisms in animals because notch protein itself acts as the receptor as well as the primary signaling molecule.
The Notch gene came into the limelight in 1914 after the discovery that its mutation in Drosophila melanogaster leads to a serrated (or "notched") wing margin phenotype. It was not...
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Interactions Between Signaling Pathways01:19

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Signaling cascades usually lack linearity. Multiple pathways interact and regulate one another, allowing cells to integrate and respond to diverse environmental stimuli.
Convergence and divergence, and cross-talk between signaling pathways
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The JAK-STAT Signaling Pathway01:20

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Several cytokine receptors have tightly bound Janus kinase or JAK proteins attached at their cytosolic tail. Small signaling molecules such as cytokines, growth hormones, or prolactins bind to the cytokine receptors and initiate their dimerization. The dimerization brings the cytosolic JAKs together that trans-phosphorylate and activates each other. The activated JAKs now phosphorylate cytosolic tails of the cytokine receptors, which serve as binding sites for adaptor proteins such as  SH2...
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TGF - β Signaling Pathway01:16

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The TGF-β signaling pathway regulates cell growth, differentiation, adhesion, motility, and development. TGF-β ligands that induce TGF-β signaling are synthesized in their latent form. Several proteases or cell surface receptors such as integrins act upon the latent form, releasing the active ligand. There are three types of mammalian TGF-βs: (TGF-β1, TGF-β2, and TGF-β3) that bind as homodimers or heterodimers to TGF-β receptors. The TGF-β receptors...
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Signal Transduction: Overview01:26

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Cells respond to many types of information, often through receptor proteins positioned on the membrane. They respond to chemical signals, such as hormones, neurotransmitters, and other signaling molecules, initiating a series of molecular reactions to produce an appropriate response. This is called signal transduction. Cells also coordinate different responses elicited by the same signaling molecule via mediators, allowing molecular cross-talk.
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T Cell Types and Functions01:24

T Cell Types and Functions

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When T cells with CD4 markers are activated, they give rise to two types of effector cells: helper T cells and regulatory T cells. Meanwhile, T cells with CD8 markers differentiate into effector cytotoxic T cells. The differentiation of CD4 T cells into helper T cell subsets, such as Th1, Th2, and Th17 cells, is dependent on the antigen type, antigen-presenting cell, and regulatory cytokines.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 21, 2025

Screening Bioactive Nanoparticles in Phagocytic Immune Cells for Inhibitors of Toll-like Receptor Signaling
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Toll-Like Receptor Signalling Pathways and the Pathogenesis of Retinal Diseases.

Owuraku Titi-Lartey1, Imran Mohammed1, Winfried M Amoaku1

  • 1Academic Ophthalmology, School of Medicine, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, United Kingdom.

Frontiers in Ophthalmology
|July 10, 2024
PubMed
Summary

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a key role in the inflammation underlying diabetic retinopathy (DR) and age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Inhibiting TLRs alongside anti-VEGF therapies may improve treatments for retinal vascular diseases.

Keywords:
age-related macular degenerationdiabetic retinopathygenetic polymorphismsinflammationischaemic retinopathyretinal diseasesretinal dystrophiestoll-like receptors

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Area of Science:

  • Ophthalmology
  • Immunology
  • Genetics

Background:

  • Retinal diseases like diabetic retinopathy (DR) and age-related macular degeneration (AMD) involve chronic inflammation.
  • Pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), particularly toll-like receptors (TLRs), are crucial in inflammatory pathways.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review existing literature on the role of TLRs in the development and progression of retinal diseases.
  • To consolidate knowledge on TLR involvement in conditions such as DR, AMD, and ischemic retinopathy.

Main Methods:

  • Comprehensive review of past and current scientific literature.
  • Analysis of data from various retinal disease models and clinical investigations.
  • Examination of genetic polymorphisms in TLRs and their association with disease risk.

Main Results:

  • TLRs are confirmed to be involved in the pathogenesis and advancement of DR, AMD, and ischemic retinopathy.
  • Genetic variations in TLRs are linked to an increased risk of developing AMD and DR.
  • Evidence for TLRs in retinal dystrophies, like retinitis pigmentosa, is currently limited.

Conclusions:

  • TLRs are significant contributors to the inflammatory processes in major retinal diseases.
  • Targeting TLRs, potentially in combination with anti-VEGF therapies, could offer enhanced treatment strategies for retinal vascular diseases.