Fluoride in groundwater sources in Ghana: A multifaceted and country-wide review

A large portion of Ghana's population, particularly in rural areas, lack reliable access to safely managed water. Many of these communities rely on groundwater as their primary drinking water source. Distinguished by its thorough examination of F^- occurrences in Ghana, this study complements previous studies by meticulously analyzing groundwater-soil and -plant dynamics, global implications, and region-specific insights, notably in the high-risk Bongo area. The study showed that Fluoride contamination in Ghana is evident in various regions, with primary data showcasing concentrations ranging from 0.05 mg/L^-1 to 13.29 mg/L^-1. The Bongo District in the north exhibits elevated fluoride levels, surpassing WHO safety limits of 1.5 mg/L^-1 [62]. Additional studies in Sekyere South and Nalerigu disclose concentrations from 0.3 mg/L^-1 to 4.0 mg/L^-1 and 0.35 mg/L^-1 to 3.95 mg/L^-1, respectively. Contamination probabilities range from 50 % to 90 % in the north and northeast. While southern areas lack extensive data, the identified hotspots necessitate further investigation. Geological factors significantly influence fluoride levels, emphasizing the urgent need for comprehensive monitoring, mitigation, and public awareness. The identified contamination poses risks to public health, urging immediate action for sustainable solutions and ensuring safe drinking water in affected regions. The health implications of fluoride toxicity on the residents of regions prone to fluoride exposure are noteworthy. As a result, an inevitable surge in instances of dental and skeletal fluorosis can be anticipated. Notwithstanding the challenges, research indicates optimistic prospects for mitigating fluoride pollution in drinking water. Techniques like the utilization of "Bone Charcoal" and the "Contact Precipitation" approach offer promise for remediation. These methods can be implemented at a household level and some are economically viable, making them advisable for adoption in fluoride-prone areas of Ghana.