Sand mining deteriorates soil fertility and farming livelihoods around Accra, Ghana

Urbanization in Sub-Saharan Africa requires vast quantities of sand to meet infrastructural demands. In Accra, Ghana, sand mining occurs predominantly on farmlands at the city's periphery. We selected three study communities to assess the effects of sand mining on agriculture using interviews with local farmers and soil analyses of mined and unmined fields. The results underscore the profound repercussions of sand mining on farmers, characterized by substantial agricultural land loss, the destruction of food crops, and the absence of compensation payments or land reclamation. The study further reveals a significant decline in soil fertility of mined fields compared to unmined fields as evidenced by reduced levels of carbon (C, by 6.3 g kg^-1) and macronutrients (nitrogen (N, by 0.6 g kg^-1), phosphorus (P, 12.7 mg kg^-1), potassium (K, 77 mg kg^-1) and magnesium (Mg, 88 mg kg^-1)), and an increase in soil compaction (bulk density by 0.13 g cm^-3 and penetration resistance by 0.11 MPa). Soil texture and pH were altered and sodium (Na, by 16 mg kg^-1) and soil moisture (by 4%) increased. On a communal level, sand mining adversely affected water availability, road infrastructure, and the health of residents. The study fills research gaps on the effects of sand mining on agricultural productivity, soil fertility and livelihoods, emphasizing the urgent need for effective regulation, law enforcement and collaboration as well as compensation and land reclamation mechanisms to limit the adverse impacts of sand mining on ecosystem services. Further, the use of more sustainable building materials should be fostered to reduce the demand for sand in Ghana.