Social and environmental risk factors for canine leptospirosis: A scoping review

Canine leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease of global importance. The identification of social and environmental risk factors remains limited and is needed for planning interventions. Our objectives were to summarise the global trends in social and environmental risk factors for canine leptospirosis and to identify knowledge gaps.

We searched peer-reviewed and grey literature for observational studies on canine leptospirosis written in English. Variables assessed via formal statistical tests were recorded and categorised into thematic risk factor groups. The risk factors were summarised by the number of unique studies and their direction of association.

Of the 3184 articles identified, 66 met the inclusion criteria. Eight environmental and three social risk factor groups were identified. Exposure to animals and water was commonly studied, but social risk factors were infrequently examined. Most studies were conducted on populations in higher-income countries and countries in the Americas.

Several limitations were encountered, including inconsistent study designs and measurement and control of variables as well as disproportionate representation of studies from the Americas and higher-income countries.

The weight and quality of evidence for social and environmental risk factors were highly variable. Additional research following standard reporting guidelines to improve transparency and increase generalisability to different contexts is needed.