Related Experiment Video
Updated: Jun 15, 2025

Continuous Theta Burst Stimulation of the Posterior Medial Frontal Cortex to Experimentally Reduce Ideological Threat Responses
Published on: September 28, 2018
Exploring cumulative identity-based discrimination, distress, and traumatic exposure among Muslims living in the
Salman Shaheen Ahmad1, Isha Hammad2, Katrina Rbeiz3
1Department of Psychology, University of Miami.
Objective:
Muslims living in the United States (MLUS), a highly heterogeneous group, experience high rates of discrimination that may cumulatively contribute to traumatic stress. This study explored whether identity-based discrimination (i.e., due to religion, gender, race) was individually and cumulatively associated with psychological distress and exposure to trauma among MLUS.
Method:
Fifty-nine MLUS completed the survey at two time points (~1 year apart). We administered measures of discrimination (at Time 1), distress (at Times 1 and 2), and trauma exposure (at Time 2). Multiple linear regressions determined whether discrimination at Time 1 was associated with traumatic exposure or distress at Time 2, after controlling for covariates. Mediation analyses determined whether the relationship between cumulative discrimination and distress at Time 2 occurred via distress at Time 1.
Results:
MLUS who reported experiencing both religious and racial discrimination also reported greater exposure to traumatic events, after controlling for covariates. All three forms of identity-based discrimination (religion, race, gender) were individually and cumulatively (i.e., experiencing all three) associated with distress at Time 1, but not Time 2. However, the relationships between cumulative discrimination at Time 1 and distress at Time 2 were mediated by distress at Time 1. U.S.-born Muslims were particularly at risk for experiencing discrimination, distress, and traumatic exposure.
Conclusion:
Experiences of discrimination may have a cumulative impact on trauma and psychological distress among MLUS. This study underscores the need for targeted interventions that assess MLUS clients' discriminatory experiences to develop a more holistic conceptualization, better support systems, and the most effective approaches. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2025 APA, all rights reserved).
Related Concept Videos
Stereotypes, Prejudice, and Discrimination
Ethnic Identity within a Larger Culture
Surveys
Dissociative Identity Disorder
Post-traumatic Stress Disorder
Symptoms and Behavioral Manifestations
A spectrum of distressing symptoms characterizes PTSD. Recurrent flashbacks, where individuals involuntarily relive traumatic events,...
Dissociative Disorders
Dissociative Fugue
A hallmark feature of dissociative disorders is the dissociative fugue...

