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The hippocampus, a critical brain structure, plays an essential role in memory processing, particularly in the formation and retrieval of memory. This small, seahorse-shaped region is located within the medial temporal lobe, with one hippocampus in each brain hemisphere. Experimental studies involving lesions in the hippocampi of rats have demonstrated significant impairments in tasks such as object recognition and maze navigation, indicating the hippocampus involvement in both recognition and...
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Explicit memories, also known as declarative memories, are consciously remembered, recalled, and reported. Studying for a chemistry exam involves material that will become part of explicit memory. There are two types of explicit memory: episodic and semantic.
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Memory is one of the most vital higher mental functions of the brain. Memory is closely related to learning because it enables us to retain information and experiences from our past to use them in our present life. It also helps us to remember facts, events, and skills, such as riding a bike or swimming. There are two types of memory — declarative memory, which involves memorizing facts or events, and procedural memory, which enables us to remember how to do something like writing or...
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Updated: Jun 13, 2025

A Real-world What-Where-When Memory Test
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The function of episodic memory in animals.

Susan D Healy1, T Andrew Hurly2, Jeanne Godard1,3

  • 1Centre for Biological Diversity, School of Biology, University of St Andrews, St Andrews KY16 9TH, UK.

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences
|September 15, 2024
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Animal episodic memory, including what, where, and when, is demonstrated in food-storing birds. These memories are crucial for animals to make future decisions, highlighting their significant functional role.

Keywords:
episodic memorynatural selectionwhat–where–whenwhat–where–whichwild

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Area of Science:

  • Animal Behavior
  • Cognitive Neuroscience
  • Evolutionary Psychology

Background:

  • Episodic memory, defined by "what, where, and when" components, was initially studied in food-storing birds.
  • Previous research focused on the "what" and "where" aspects of animal memory.
  • Incorporating the "when" element presented experimental challenges but advanced understanding.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To explore the functional significance of episodic memory in non-human animals.
  • To argue that episodic memories enable animals to make future-oriented decisions.
  • To present evidence supporting the role of episodic memory in animal behavior.

Main Methods:

  • Reviewing existing data on animal memory, particularly from food-storing birds.
  • Analyzing field-based examples of animals integrating "what, where, and when" information.
  • Examining the functional role of memory in decision-making processes.

Main Results:

  • Food-storing birds provide a key model for studying episodic memory components.
  • Animals demonstrate the ability to integrate "what, where, and when" information in memory.
  • Evidence suggests episodic memory influences future actions and decisions in animals.

Conclusions:

  • Episodic memories are not unique to humans and play a vital functional role in animal lives.
  • These memories are essential for animals to plan and make adaptive decisions about future actions.
  • The study supports the idea that episodic memory contributes to an animal's ability to navigate its environment and future challenges.