Impact of anthropogenic activities on atmospheric chlorinated paraffins in Ghana using polyurethane foam disk -...

Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are a global concern due to their high production, ubiquity in the environment and potential toxicity. In Ghana, there is a significant research gap on the concentration and sources of CPs in the air, as well as insufficient regular monitoring programs to track CP levels over time. This study utilized polyurethane foam-based passive air samplers (PUF-PAS) to examine the concentrations, sources and potential human health risks of CPs in the atmosphere surrounding e-waste sites, urban areas, commercial areas and control/background areas in Ghana. The medium-chain CPs (MCCPs) dominated with an average concentration of 26.0 ± 40.1 ng/m³ and ranged from 1.78 to 240 ng/m³. Short-chain CPs (SCCPs) ranged from 0.05 to 15.2 ng/m³ and had an average concentration of 3.48 ± 3.99 ng/m³. The very short-chain CPs (C9-CPs), had an average concentration of 0.544 ± 0.524 ng/m³ and ranged from 0.091 to 2.14 ng/m³. MCCPs exceeded SCCPs by a factor of 7.5 and C9-CPs by a factor of 48. C₁₄Cl₈ was the dominant congener in MCCPs and C₁₀Cl₇ was also the dominant congener in SCCPs. E-waste was the main contributor to SCCPs and MCCPs (>30 %) in Ghana. The assessed non-cancer risks associated with CP exposure were within acceptable ranges. For cancer risk, MCCPs indicated high potential health risk but C9-CPs and SCCPs showed low risk. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study on CPs in Ghana's atmosphere, and e-waste was identified as the country's main source of CPs. This study will help regulatory bodies create policies and procedures to control the use and disposal of chlorinated paraffins.