Lightweight Source-Free Domain Adaptation Based on Adaptive Euclidean Alignment for Brain-Computer Interfaces

For privacy protection of subjects in electroencephalogram (EEG)-based brain-computer interfaces (BCIs), using source-free domain adaptation (SFDA) for cross-subject recognition has proven to be highly effective. However, updating and storing a model trained on source subjects for each new subject can be inconvenient. This paper extends Euclidean alignment (EA) to propose adaptive Euclidean alignment (AEA), which learns a projection matrix to align the distribution of the target subject with the source subjects, thus eliminating domain drift issues and improving model classification performance of subject-independent BCIs. Combining the proposed AEA with various existing SFDA methods, such as SHOT, GSFDA, and NRC, this paper presents three new methods: AEA-SHOT, AEA-GSFDA, and AEA-NRC. In our experimental studies, these AEA-based SFDA methods were applied to four well-known deep learning models (i.e., EEGNet, Shallow ConvNet, Deep ConvNet, and MSFBCNN) on two motor imagery (MI) datasets, one event-related potential (ERP) dataset and one steady-state visual evoked potentials (SSVEP) dataset. The advanced cross-subject EEG classification performance demonstrates the efficacy of our proposed methods. For example, AEA-SHOT achieved the best average accuracy of 81.4% on the PhysioNet dataset.