A review of ion scattering spectroscopy studies at liquid interfaces with noble gas ion projectiles

Ion scattering spectroscopy (ISS) is an analytical tool that provides direct structural, topographical, and atomic compositional information at interfaces when ions are used as projectiles. Since its development in 1967, ISS is commonly used to obtain quantitative information about solid interfaces. Over the last couple of decades, ISS has emerged as an important technique to probe liquid interfaces and their studies employing ISS has become not uncommon, more so with Neutral impact collision ion scattering spectroscopy (NICISS). Therefore, here the principle of ISS with a particular focus on NICISS and its data evaluation are summarised while reviewing some important studies at vapor-liquid interfaces that provide direct information for molecular orientation of liquids (including ionic liquids), composition and distribution of atoms (or solutes) and charges as a function of depth to gain vast variety of thermodynamical information. Employing ISS such information can be achieved with high depth resolution of ∼1-2 Å (depending on the nature of the experiment). These examples highlight the significance of ISS and show potential for its application for studies related to specific ion effects, atmospheric reaction in aerosol and sea water droplets, and even determining the fate of environmental pollutants like heavy metal ions and per-fluoroalkyl substances (PFAS). Furthermore, some limitations of ISS are also discussed relating to investigation of high-vapor pressure liquids and probing buried interfaces like liquid-liquid interfaces while presenting progresses made in probing solid-liquid interfaces.