Attention focused on memory: The episodic flanker effect with letters, words, colors, and pictures

We report 10 experiments exploring the proposition that memory retrieval is perceptual attention turned inward. The experiments adapt the Eriksen and Eriksen perceptual flanker effect to a memory task in which subjects must decide whether a cued item in a probe display appeared in the same position in a memory list. Previous research with this episodic flanker task found distance and compatibility effects like those in the perceptual flanker task, suggesting that the same attentional spotlight is turned inward in memory retrieval. The previous experiments used lists of six consonants. The experiments reported here were designed to generalize the results to a broader range of conditions, from letters to words, colors, and pictures, and from set size 6 to set sizes of 4 and 5. Experiments 1-4 varied distance and set size with lists of four, five, or six letters, words, colors, and pictures, respectively. The distance effect was observed with all materials and all set sizes. Experiments 5-8 varied compatibility by presenting context items in the probe that were either the same as the memory list (and therefore compatible with "yes" responses and incompatible with "no" responses) or different from the memory list (and therefore incompatible with "yes" responses and compatible with "no" responses). We found compatibility effects with all materials and all set sizes. These results support the proposition that memory retrieval is attention turned inward. Turned inward or outward, attention is a general process that applies the same computations to different kinds of materials.